Paragonimiasis, human lung fluke disease, is a foodborne anthropozoonosis caused by the trematodes assigned to Paragonimus and is regarded by the World Health Organization as a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD). The life cycle of this medically important parasite centres on a complex freshwater biological community that includes two intermediate hosts: a mollusc and a decapod, usually a brachyuran. Although there is a perception that the biology, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of Paragonimus is well understood, in reality, this is not the case, especially in Africa. Much remains unknown concerning the life-cycle of the parasite, its transmission, the current epidemiology of the disease, diagnosis and the effectiveness of treatment. Furthermore, cases of paragonimiasis may be misdiagnosed as resistant tuberculosis (TB) because of the similar pulmonary symptoms and no remission after anti TB therapy. The endemic foci of human paragonimiasis in Africa have been reported mainly in the forest zones of Upper Guinea (Liberia, Guinea and Ivory Coast) and Lower Guinea (Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon). Despite the perceived medical importance of paragonimiasis, relatively little attention has been paid to this NTD since its discovery in Africa in the 1960s. This review focuses on the current understanding of the life cycle and transmission of Paragonimus in Africa, discusses its diagnosis and public health importance and highlights many outstanding gaps in the knowledge that still exist for this NTD.

Leishmaniases is a tropical disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania for which the current treatment is expensive, besides increasing reports of parasite resistance. This study investigated the anti-Leishmania amazonensis activity of the essential oil from Aloysia gratissima (AgEO) and guaiol, the major sesquiterpene constituent in the oil. Our results showed that AgEO killed promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes at an IC50 of 25 and 0·16 µg mL−1, respectively, while guaiol killed amastigotes at an IC50 of 0·01 µg mL−1. Both AgEO and guaiol were safe for macrophages up to 100 µg mL−1, as evaluated by the dehydrogenase activity, membrane integrity and phagocytic capacity. AgEO and guaiol did not induce nitrite oxide (NO) in resting macrophages and inhibited the production of NO in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. The ultrastructural analysis suggested that AgEO and guaiol act directly on parasites, affecting promastigotes kinetoplast, mitochondrial matrix and plasma membrane. Together, these results pointed out that AgEO and guaiol could be promising candidates to develop anti-Leishmania drugs.

The transmission from one host to another constitutes a challenging obstacle for parasites and is a key determinant of their fitness. Due to their complex life histories involving several different hosts, the free-living dispersal stages (cercariae) of digenean trematodes show a huge diversity in morphology and behaviour. On a finer scale, we still have an extremely limited understanding of the inter- and intraspecific variation in transmission strategies of many trematode species. Here, we present a novel method to study the movement patterns of cercariae of four New Zealand trematode species (Coitocaecum parvum, Maritrema poulini, Apatemon sp. and Aporocotylid sp. I.) via automated video tracking. This approach allows to quantify parameters otherwise not measurable and clearly illustrates the individual strategies of parasites to search for their respective target hosts. Cercariae that seek out an evasive fish target hosts showed higher swimming speeds (acceleration and velocity) and travelled further distances, compared with species searching for high-density crustacean hosts. Automated video tracking provides a powerful tool for such detailed analyses of parasites’ host-searching strategies and can enhance our understanding of complex host–parasite interactions, ranging from parasite community structure to the transmission of potential disease agents.

Genotypes of the myxosporean parasite Ceratonova shasta are defined by the number of ATC repeats in the parasite's ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer region 1. These genotypes correlate with specific salmonid fish hosts. We observed coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) with mixtures of genotypes II and III, and assumed that this was a consequence of fish having an aggregate infection from multiple individual parasites. We hypothesized that although multiple ITS copies are present within a parasite spore, the DNA sequences of these copies are identical, and thus individual C. shasta spores are a single genotype. We tested this by extracting and sequencing DNA from individual myxospores. We trialed three approaches for in-tube DNA extraction; digestion with proteinase K was superior to simply rehydrating spores, or incubation in the buffer. Sequences from 14 myxospores were each a mixture of genotypes II and III. Therefore, intra-genomic ribosomal DNA variants exist within individual parasite spores, and II and III should no longer be regarded as discrete C. shasta genotypes. This single-spore genotyping approach will be a useful tool for testing validity of other C. shasta genotypes, and for correctly matching genotype with phenotype for mixed infections of other myxozoan species.

Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, is widespread in domestic livestock and wildlife in South East Asia. Surra can affect cattle, buffaloes, horses and also Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Despite the ‘threatened to extinction’ CITES status of elephant, surra's impact has not been thoroughly assessed yet in this species. This work offers to adapt an antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) protocol, to detect Trypanosoma evansi antibodies in elephant serum. The test was validated with 365 negative-reference samples, which allowed the determination of a 16% positive threshold. The test was applied to a serological survey including 375 individuals. The estimated global seroprevalence was 2·1% (95% CI 1·1–4·2%). Therefore, surra does not appear to be endemic in Thai domestic elephants, but occasional outbreaks were reported to our laboratory during the survey period. These outbreaks seemed to be linked to close proximity to cattle or buffaloes, and led to severe clinical signs in elephants. Frequent relapses were observed after treatment with diminazene aceturate, the only trypanocide drug currently available in Thailand. Therefore, care should be taken to keep elephants away from bovine reservoirs, and to monitor the disease in this endangered species. ELISA proved to be reliable for screening purposes as well as for post-treatment monitoring.

Parasites often have reduced genomes as their own genes become redundant when utilizing their host as a source of metabolites, thus losing their own de novo production of metabolites. Primate malaria parasites can synthesize vitamin B1 (thiamine) de novo but rodent malaria and other genome-sequenced apicomplexans cannot, as the three essential genes responsible for this pathway are absent in their genomes. The unique presence of functional thiamine synthesis genes in primate malaria parasites and their sequence similarities to bacterial orthologues, have led to speculations that this pathway was horizontally acquired from bacteria. Here we show that the genes essential for the de novo synthesis of thiamine are found also in avian Plasmodium species. Importantly, they are also present in species phylogenetically basal to all mammalian and avian Plasmodium parasites, i.e. Haemoproteus. Furthermore, we found that these genes are expressed during the blood stage of the avian malaria infection, indicating that this metabolic pathway is actively transcribed. We conclude that the ability to synthesize thiamine is widespread among haemosporidians, with a recent loss in the rodent malaria species.

GLP-1 (abnormal germline proliferation) is a Notch-like receptor protein that plays an essential role in pharyngeal development. In this study, an orthologue of Caenorhabditis elegans glp-1 was identified in Meloidogyne incognita. A computational analysis revealed that the orthologue contained almost all the domains present in the C. elegans gene: specifically, the LIN-12/Notch repeat, the ankyrin repeat, a transmembrane domain and different ligand-binding motifs were present in orthologue, but the epidermal growth factor-like motif was not observed. An expression analysis showed differential expression of glp-1 throughout the life cycle of M. incognita, with relatively higher expression in the egg stage. To evaluate the silencing efficacy of Mi-glp-1, transgenic Arabidopsis plants carrying double-stranded RNA constructs of glp-1 were generated, and infection of these plants with M. incognita resulted in a 47–50% reduction in the numbers of galls, females and egg masses. Females obtained from the transgenic RNAi lines exhibited 40–60% reductions in the transcript levels of the targeted glp-1 gene compared with females isolated from the control plants. Second-generation juveniles (J2s), which were descendants of the infected females from the transgenic lines, showed aberrant phenotypes. These J2s exhibited a significant decrease in the overall distance from the stylet to the metacorpus region, and this effect was accompanied by disruption around the metacorporeal bulb of the pharynx. The present study suggests a role for this gene in organ (pharynx) development during embryogenesis in M. incognita and its potential use as a target in the management of nematode infestations in plants.

Blastocystis is an anaerobic protist, commonly inhabiting the intestinal tract of both humans and other animals. Blastocystis is extremely diverse comprising 17 genetically distinct subtypes in mammals and birds. Pathogenicity of this enteric microbe is currently disputed and knowledge regarding its distribution, diversity and zoonotic potential is fragmentary. Most research has focused on Blastocystis from primates, while sampling from other animals remains limited. Herein, we investigated the prevalence and distribution of Blastocystis in animals held within a conservation park in South East England. A total of 118 samples were collected from 27 vertebrate species. The barcoding region of the small-subunit ribosomal RNA was used for molecular identification and subtyping. Forty one per cent of the species were sequence positive for Blastocystis indicating a high prevalence and wide distribution among the animals in the park. Six subtypes were identified, one of which is potentially novel. Moreover, the majority of animals were asymptomatic carriers, suggesting that Blastocystis is not pathogenic in animals. This study provides a thorough investigation of Blastocystis prevalence within a wildlife park in the UK and can be used as a platform for further investigations on the distribution of other eukaryotic gut microbes.

The present study characterized the biological function of the asparaginyl peptidase legumain-1 (LEG-1) of the bovine lungworm Dictyocaulus viviparus and its suitability as a recombinant vaccine against dictyocaulosis. Quantitative real-time PCR and immunoblot analysis revealed LEG-1 to be almost exclusively transcribed and expressed in parasitic lungworm stages. Immunohistochemistry localized the enzyme in the parasite's gut, which was confirmed by immunoblots detecting LEG-1 in the gut as well as male testes. LEG-1 was recombinantly (rLEG-1) expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris and subsequently analysed in activity assays for its enzyme functions and substrate specificity. For sufficient functionality, rLEG-1 needed trans-activation through D. viviparus cathepsin L-2, indicating a novel mechanism of legumain activation. After trans-activation, rLEG-1 worked best at pH 5·5 and 35–39 °C and cleaved a legumain-specific artificial substrate as well as the natural substrates bovine collagen types I and II. In a clinical vaccination trial, rLEG-1 did not protect against challenge infection. Results of in vitro characterization, transcription pattern and localization enhance the presumption that LEG-1 participates in digestion processes of D. viviparus. Since rLEG-1 needs trans-activation through a cathepsin, it is probably involved in an enzyme cascade and therefore remains interesting as a candidate in a multi-component vaccine.

Human strongyloidiasis is caused by helminth Strongyloides stercoralis. It has a worldwide distribution, often neglected and cause of severe morbidity. The parasitological diagnosis is hindered by the low and irregular amount of larvae in feces. The goal of the present study was to detect IgG and IgG immune complex using conventional serum samples and saliva as alternative samples. We collected samples from 60 individuals, namely: group I composed of 30 healthy individuals; and group II composed of 30 individuals eliminating S. stercoralis larvae in feces. We calculated the area under the curve, general index of diagnostic accuracy, Kappa index and determined the correlations between different diagnostic tests. The detection of IgG levels was performed by an immunoenzymatic assay with alkaline extract of S. venezuelensis larvae as antigen. Positivity of anti-S. stercoralis IgG in serum samples from group I was 3·3%, and from group II 93·3%. The detection of immune complex indicated that group I exhibited 3·3% and group II 56·7%. In the saliva samples, IgG detection was 26·7% for group I and 43·3% for group II. Immune complex was detected in 20% of group I, and 30% of group II. IgG immune complex in conventional serum samples and saliva as alternative samples can be considered biomarkers for the diagnosis of active strongyloidiasis.

Outbreaks of Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) have significantly increased due to the conflicts in the Middle East, with most of the cases occurring in resource-limited areas such as refugee settlements. The standard methods of diagnosis include microscopy and parasite culture, which have several limitations. To address the growing need for a CL diagnostic that can be field applicable, we have identified five candidate neoglycoproteins (NGPs): Galα (NGP3B), Galα(1,3)Galα (NGP17B), Galα(1,3)Galβ (NGP9B), Galα(1,6)[Galα(1,2)]Galβ (NGP11B), and Galα(1,3)Galβ(1,4)Glcβ (NGP1B) that are differentially recognized in sera from individuals with Leishmania major infection as compared with sera from heterologous controls. These candidates contain terminal, non-reducing α-galactopyranosyl (α-Gal) residues, which are known potent immunogens to humans. Logistic regression models found that NGP3B retained the best diagnostic potential (area under the curve from receiver-operating characteristic curve = 0.8). Our data add to the growing body of work demonstrating the exploitability of the human anti-α-Gal response in CL diagnosis.

Trypanosoma equiperdum is a protozoan parasite responsible for causing Dourine, a debilitating neglected veterinary disease, found worldwide affecting equids. It is the only pathogenic trypanosome species that does not require an invertebrate vector for transmission, thus being passed from animal to animal via coitus. At present, there is no officially recognized form of chemotherapeutic treatment and therefore all confirmed (or suspected) cases of infected animals must be slaughtered immediately. For many global communities and farming populations, which rely heavily on their animals for their livelihood, such stringent regulations can seriously enhance the socio-economic problems attributing to poverty. Two reference drugs, together with 37 novel diamidine compounds were tested in vitro using a 72 h drug sensitivity assay to determine their efficacy against two axenically adapted T. equiperdum strains. Further in vivo investigations in mouse models of infection against 4 ‘true’ T. equiperdum strains were performed using the 17 most active diamidines. Single bolus doses of 10 mg kg−1, given i.p. were administered to NMRI mice infected with one of the 4 T. equiperdum strains. The results obtained from this study show that experimentally T. equiperdum can indeed be effectively treated with chemotherapy using in vivo mouse models of infection.

Echinococcus granulosus is an important zoonotic parasite that is distributed worldwide. The EG95 vaccine was developed to assist with control of E. granulosus transmission through the parasite's livestock intermediate hosts. The vaccine is based on a recombinant antigen encoded by a gene which is a member of a multi-gene family. With the recent availability of two E. granulosus draft genomes, we sought to map the eg95 gene family to the genomes. We were unable to map unequivocally any of the eg95 gene family members which had previously been characterized by cloning and sequencing both strands of genomic DNA fragments. Our inability to map EG95-related genes to the genomes has revealed limitations in the assembled sequence data when utilized for gene family analyses. This study contrasts with the expectations expressed in often high-profile publications describing draft genomes of parasitic organisms, highlighting deficiencies in currently available genomic resources for E. granulosus and provides a cautionary note for research which seeks to utilize these genome datasets.

Bat flies (Streblidae) are diverse, obligate blood-feeding insects and probably the most conspicuous ectoparasites of bats. They show preferences for specific body regions on their host bat, which are reflected in behavioural characteristics. In this study, we corroborate the categorization of bat flies into three ecomorphological groups, focusing only on differences in hind leg morphology. As no detailed phylogeny of bat flies is available, it remains uncertain whether these morphological differences reflect the evolutionary history of bat flies or show convergent adaptations for the host habitat type. We show that the division of the host bat into three distinct habitats contributes to the avoidance of interspecific competition of bat fly species. Finally, we found evidence for density-dependent competition between species belonging to the same ecomorphological group.

Unavailability of vaccines and effective drugs are primarily responsible for the growing menace of cryptosporidiosis. This study has incorporated a bioinformatics-based screening approach to explore potential vaccine candidates and novel drug targets in Cryptosporidium parvum proteome. A systematic strategy was defined for comparative genomics, orthology with related Cryptosporidium species, prioritization parameters and MHC class I and II binding promiscuity. The approach reported cytoplasmic protein cgd7_1830, a signal peptide protein, as a novel drug target. SWISS-MODEL online server was used to generate the 3D model of the protein and was validated by PROCHECK. The model has been subjected to in silico docking study with screened potent lead compounds from the ZINC database, PubChem and ChEMBL database using Flare software package of Cresset®. Furthermore, the approach reported protein cgd3_1400, as a vaccine candidate. The predicted B- and T-cell epitopes on the proposed vaccine candidate with highest scores were also subjected to docking study with MHC class I and II alleles using ClusPro web server. Results from this study could facilitate selection of proteins which could serve as drug targets and vaccine candidates to efficiently tackle the growing threat of cryptosporidiosis.

The use of chimeric molecules fusing several antigenic determinants is a promising strategy for the development of low-cost, standardized and reliable kits to determine specific antibodies. In this study, we designed and assessed a novel recombinant chimera that complements the performance of our previously developed chimera, CP1 [FRA and SAPA antigens (Ags)], to diagnose chronic Chagas disease. The new chimeric protein, named CP3, is composed of MAP, TcD and TSSAII/V/VI antigenic determinants. We compared the performance of both chimeric Ags using a panel of 67 Trypanosoma cruzi-reactive sera and 67 non-reactive ones. The sensitivity of CP3 vs CP1 was 100 and 90.2%, and specificity was 92.5 and 100%, respectively. The mixture of CP1 + CP3 achieved 100% of sensitivity and specificity. More importantly, an additional subset of 17 sera from patients with discordant results of conventional serological methods was analysed; the CP1 + CP3 mixture allowed us to accurately classify 14 of them with respect to IIF, the usual technique used in most of the reference centres. These results show an improved performance of the CP1 + CP3 mixture in comparison with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and indirect haemagglutination commercial assays.

A curious aspect of the evolution of the hypnozoite theory of malarial relapse is its transmogrification from theory into ‘fact’, this being of historical, linguistic, scientific and sociological interest. As far as it goes, the hypnozoite explanation for relapse is almost certainly correct. I contend, however, that many of the genotypically homologous, non-reinfection, relapse-like Plasmodium vivax recurrences that researchers ascribe to hypnozoite activation are probably hypnozoite-independent. Indeed, some malariologists are starting to recognize that homologous P. vivax recurrences have most likely been overattributed to activation of hypnozoites. Hitherto identified, non-hypnozoite, possible plasmodial sources of recurrence that must be considered, besides circulating erythrocytic stages, include parasites in splenic dendritic cells, other cells in the spleen (in addition to infected erythrocytes there), bone marrow (importantly) and the skin. I argue that we need to take into account the possibility of a dual or multiple extra-vascular origin of P. vivax non-reinfection recurrences, not arbitrarily discount it. The existence of a P. vivax reservoir(s) is a topical subject and one of practical importance for malaria eradication. Pertinent drug-associated matters are also discussed, as is the dormancy-related significance of clues provided by blood-stage-induced malarial infection.