The endemic Oncocyclus irises of Lebanon are rare and threatened. Their historical locations (based on information from herbaria and the available literature) were compared to an update of their current distribution. Only 50% of the previously known populations were confirmed extant, indicating a considerable decline in the range of these taxa. The populations that were relocated were either small remnants of once larger populations or highly fragmented. The main threats identified were urbanization, agriculture and grazing. No specific habitat preferences could be identified other than an association with open rocky slopes with a south-west exposure. Based on our findings, we propose that Iris cedretii and Iris sofarana subsp. sofarana should be categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and I. sofarana subsp. kasruwana as Vulnerable. There is an urgent need to develop national conservation measures for these species, especially in regards to land ownership.

Assessing the biodiversity of a region, particularly when it includes rare, cryptic and nocturnal species, is notoriously difficult but nevertheless of great importance, especially in regions that have received little prior research interest. Species in these regions are often only perceived to be present through the identification of animal signs such as scat or hair. Here we show how molecular techniques can be used to sequence mitochondrial DNA extracted from the scat of essentially unknown carnivore species and thus assess the species present in a remote desert region in southern Algeria. In doing so we present a reliable and reproducible method for determining carnivore biodiversity through non-invasive sampling. We also identify two species of large carnivore in an area where one, the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, is known to exist but at very low densities, and another, the leopard Panthera pardus, has never previously been observed.

The bush dog Speothos venaticus remains one of the lesser-known Neotropical canids. To understand better the species' natural history and conservation requirements an assessment was made of its distribution and habitat use, and relevant conservation issues, in northern Brazil, using museum collections, field observations and published literature. The Parnaíba River and the Cerrado biome comprised the eastern limit of an apparently patchy distribution in northern Brazil. In addition to making use of lowland and pre-montane rainforests and savannahs, bush dogs were found in highly disturbed areas. The latter finding is unexpected and contrary to previous assumptions. Habitat loss, prey depletion and disease transmission from domestic animals appear to pose the main threats to the bush dog's long-term conservation. Although there are considerable tracts of protected areas in the region, their efficacy for bush dog conservation remains questionable.

The elephant Loxodonta africana population of Mozambique has declined rapidly over the last 4 decades. Historical census data are incomplete but suggest that the impact of human activity on the elephant population increased after the onset of the colonial era. Demand for ivory explains the population decline from 1700 to 1940, and the killing of elephants as part of settlement policies and tsetse fly control programmes further reduced the populations between 1940 and 1960. Land transformation from 1900 onwards may also have contributed to the historical decline in elephant numbers. Our assessment suggests that landscape approaches should be explored in seeking to conserve elephants in modern Mozambique.

Muriquis are endemic primates of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, with two recognized species: Brachyteles hypoxanthus and Brachyteles arachnoides. Although the state of Rio de Janeiro is the type locality for B. arachnoides the muriqui population of this region was, until recently, poorly known. We report our surveys for muriquis in seven localities in the state. Our objectives were to estimate the number of muriquis remaining and to identify local threats. We recorded muriquis in Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, Parque Nacional do Itatiaia and Guapiaçu Private Reserve. Based on our sightings and information from local people we estimate that the remaining muriquis in Rio de Janeiro total c. 160, with 110 B. arachnoides and 50 B. hypoxanthus. The most severe threat to muriquis in these areas is hunting, followed by small population sizes, habitat fragmentation, forest disturbance and ecotourism. Central Rio de Janeiro state still harbours large tracts of intact forests potentially available to muriquis. Thus, if conservation actions could be targeted to mitigate the main threat of hunting there is potential for the recovery of muriquis in the state of Rio de Janeiro, at least in the short-term.

The population of the Critically Endangered Mauritius fody Foudia rubra fell by 55% over 1975–1993 because of habitat destruction and predation. The species was believed to be dependent on a small grove of introduced, non-invasive Cryptomeria japonica trees that offered protection from nest predation. We investigated the current population size and distribution of the fody and compared nesting success in forestry plantations to that of a released population on an offshore island. The population size on the mainland has remained stable over the past 10 years, with increases in pine Pinus spp. plantations, but continues to decline in areas of predominantly native vegetation. Only 16% of pairs found were estimated to nest in native tree species. Up to 81% of nest failures on the mainland were attributed to predation but nesting success in C. japonica and pine trees was similar to that of a released population on a predator-free offshore island. The mainland population is increasingly dependent on plantations for survival and we predict this will continue. Management and protection of non-invasive exotic species, together with creation of native habitat refuges on the mainland and offshore islands can be used to increase numbers of threatened birds in areas where predator control is not feasible.

The Near Threatened white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum went extinct in Botswana during the 20th century because of poaching. Several attempts have been made to reintroduce the species. From 2001 to 2003 four batches (a total of 32 individuals) of white rhinos were released in the Moremi Game Reserve. All were fitted with transmitters, ear notched and monitored on a regular basis. Rhinos released in the last batch moved significantly further from the release site compared to early batches. Six female rhinos from the last batch dispersed out of the Reserve. Activity area (95% minimum convex polygon; MCP) sizes decreased with years after release and increasing density of rhinos but only density had an effect on the core area (50% MCP) sizes. We conclude that the number of rhinos present in the area of release should be carefully considered before further individuals are released. When released in an area with rhinos that have established territories, the newly reintroduced individuals may be forced to disperse. If other areas of suitable habitat are available elsewhere in the same protected area, animals should be released at different sites to avoid unwanted long-term dispersal and to use the inverse density-dependent activity area sizes to maximize the rhino population in an area.

Nest surveys are widely employed to assess the population density of orang-utans (Pongo spp.) and evaluate alternative management scenarios relevant to the protection of these threatened great apes. However, this method is less accurate and prone to much greater error than is generally acknowledged. Here we highlight the limitations of orang-utan nest surveys, discuss the risks of ignoring these limitations, and note conditions under which standard nest survey methods are appropriate.

Until recently the conservation status of seven of the nine species of tarsier on the IUCN Red List was Data Deficient, and determining the status of these species has been a priority. In addition, there are believed to be numerous cryptic tarsier taxa. Tarsiers have been proposed as flagship species to promote conservation in the biogeographical region that includes Sulawesi and surrounding island chains. Therefore, identifying and naming cryptic tarsier species and determining their conservation status is not only a priority for tarsier conservation but also for regional biodiversity conservation. Two tarsier species, Tarsius sangirensis from Sangihe Island and Tarsius tumpara from Siau Island, occur within the Sangihe Islands, a volcanic arc stretching c. 200 km north from the northern tip of Sulawesi. The geographical information system database from The Nature Conservancy's Sulawesi Ecoregional Conservation Assessment was used in conjunction with field surveys to determine the conservation status of these two species. Our results show that both species are at risk from a small extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, small population size, high risk of volcanism, high human population density, fragmented populations (many of which are in marginal habitat), and lack of conservation areas for either species. In addition, there are no available ex situ conservation options. The Siau population is further threatened by hunting for bushmeat. Our recommendations are that T. sangirensis be categorized as Endangered and T. tumpara, which was included on the 2006–2008 list of the world's top 25 most endangered primates, as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

We studied a breeding population of pallid harrier Circus macrourus in 2000 and 2006 in north-central Kazakhstan to evaluate the relationships between breeding parameters and breeding habitat in the species’ core breeding range. Pallid harrier nests were found in a wide variety of vegetation types and heights belonging to three main types: steppe, riverine and agricultural. The proportion of nests found in each habitat type (corrected for search effort) differed between 2000 and 2006, with agricultural habitats being more used in 2000, when fallow land was abundant, than in 2006. Highest densities were observed in riverine habitats but hatching success seemed to be lower there because of greater predation. There was apparently lower productivity (smaller broods) in agricultural than in other areas. Laying was spread over 2 months, with a bimodal pattern of laying dates. Birds laid earlier in agricultural and steppe habitats and later in riverine habitats. These differences may be linked to spatio-temporal habitat heterogeneity, and possibly to intra-population heterogeneity in wintering areas implying different arrival dates on the breeding grounds. We discuss the implications of the findings for the conservation of this Near Threatened species.

Illegal bushmeat hunting has become a serious problem for wildlife managers in many African countries. We investigated the spatial and temporal pattern in meat and fish consumption by people surrounding the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, to understand better the links between hunting and consumption. We studied 150 households in five villages during March–December 2006 along a gradient from the Park boundary to 80 km away. In addition, two parallel 10 km transects were monitored monthly in areas within the National Park immediately adjoining three village areas to investigate the relationship between household meat consumption and the influx of migratory herbivores. We found that the number of meat meals was higher in the villages closest to the Park boundary and the weekly number of meat meals per household in all villages within 30 km of the Park boundary increased with the seasonal influx of migratory herbivores. Meat consumption was unrelated to household income except in the most distant village where there was a positive correlation. The number of fish meals in the villages closest to the Park decreased with the influx of migratory herbivores. We recommend a coordinated management of fish harvesting from Lake Victoria and wildlife conservation around the Serengeti National Park to implement sustainable management of these two ecologically different sources of animal protein.

We investigated the effects of human disturbance and attitudes on the density of the tree agama Acanthocercus atricollis atricollis in a densely populated rural settlement in South Africa. In this environment agamas live on trees that are harvested for firewood or maintained for fruit production. We conducted visual encounter surveys of A. a. atricollis and interviewed local households to establish whether human attitudes and actions could affect tree agama populations. Although local residents viewed tree agamas negatively (50% of interviewees claimed to have killed an agama) and acted to exclude them from their environment, tree agama density in villages was higher than that of adjacent communal rangelands and than a previously reported density estimate in a nearby protected area. We suggest three major factors that could explain why tree agamas are favoured in this peri-urban landscape in the face of human persecution: firstly, predators such as snakes and raptors are likely to occur at a much lower density in peri-urban areas; secondly, their primary prey (insects) may be more abundant or accessible in this landscape; thirdly, they may experience less competition for resources.

The population of the Vulnerable Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti has experienced a gradual recovery from 38 pairs (1974) to 198 (2004). We analysed the spatial and temporal variation of the demographic parameters for 1981–2004. Annual productivity was 1.19–1.32 chicks per female and adult survival rate 0.918–0.986. Survival during the post-fledging period was 0.894 and the annual survival rate of the dispersing individuals was 0.561. Three phases of population evolution were distinguished: growth (1981–1993), stability or slight decrease (1994–1999) and growth (2000–2004). Variation in adult survival seems to explain this pattern for the first two periods. However, a large disparity between the observed growth rate and the modelled population growth in 2000–2004 is best explained if we assume that a decrease in the age of recruitment took place. This is supported by the recent increase in the frequency of non-adult birds in breeding pairs. The survival of unpaired eagles in dispersal areas is becoming more important for the maintenance of current population growth. Spatial variation of adult survival and breeding success is not congruent with the observed growth rate of the population, which suggests the existence of an important flow of individuals between populations. These results highlight the importance of addressing the conservation of the species from a global perspective and the need to focus on adult survival in breeding territories and on non-adult survival in dispersal areas.

Information on large mammals in Turkey is limited, and widely applicable, reliable field methods need to be used to gather appropriate data for conservation and management. To evaluate local information on mammal species we conducted interview and ground surveys, followed by a camera trap survey, during January–May 2006 in Yenice Forest, a globally important and intact region for mammals in Turkey. Interviews with local people provided information on the occurrence of wolf Canis lupus, brown bear Ursus arctos, wild cat Felis silvestris, red fox Vulpes vulpes, Eurasian badger Meles meles, pine marten Martes martes, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, wild boar Sus scrofa and Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx. The ground and camera trap surveys confirmed the presence of all these species except lynx. In addition, the camera trap survey documented the presence of jackal Canis aureus and brown hare Lepus europaeus, signs of which were not found in the ground survey and whose presence was not known by local people. Local information on wildlife is important but management and conservation initiatives should not solely depend on such information and, as our study indicates, interview surveys cannot replace field research. The Turkish Ministry of Environment and Forestry needs to consider the establishment of a protected area large enough to secure the future of the large mammals of Yenice Forest.

The southern patas monkey Erythrocebus patas baumstarki is a subspecies thought to be endemic to central north Tanzania but its distribution and abundance is not well documented. We therefore review what is known about the historical and current distribution of the southern patas. It appears that, at present, the southern patas occurs in three populations, in the Serengeti, Mt Kilimanjaro and Arusha. Since 1995 the gaps among these three populations have become larger, thereby increasing their isolation. The available data suggest that, at present, southern patas occur over c. 20,700 km2 (c. 2.3% of Tanzania's land surface area). In 1995 this was c. 30,800 km2 (c. 3.5% of the land surface area). As such, the geographical range of the southern patas has declined by c. 33% since 1995. There are unlikely to be > 900 southern patas today, and there could be < 150. Our recommendations are to (1) maintain an internet accessed database (PatasBase) into which sightings of the southern patas can be entered, (2) interview members of local communities to assess past and current distribution and abundance of the southern patas, (3) conduct field studies to obtain more detailed information on the distribution, abundance, and conservation status of patas in Tanzania, (4) undertake ecological and behavioural research on selected groups of southern patas, and (5) prepare and implement a conservation action plan for the southern patas.

Identifying individuals through time can provide information on population size, composition, survival and growth rates. Identification using photographs of distinctive physical characteristics has been used in many species to replace conventional marker tagging. We evaluated photographic records over 7 years of Vulnerable whale sharks Rhincodon typus, at an aggregation in the Seychelles, for estimation of population size and structure. We collected 11,681 photographs of which only 1,149 were suitable for comparison using semi-automated matching software (I3S) of individual spot patterns behind the gills. Photo-identification showed that there was considerable loss of marker tags and enabled an estimation of the rate of tag loss. The combination of photo-identification with marker tagging identified a total of 512 individual sharks over 2001–2007. Of these, there were 115 resightings in subsequent years with two sharks identified in 2001 resighted 5 years later in 2006 and another shark sighted in 2001 resighted in 2007. Estimates of abundance using conventional open mark–recapture models for 2004–2007 were 348–488 sharks (95% confidence interval), with a high level of entry into the population by itinerants. Annual apparent survival probability was 0.343–0.781 over 2004–2007, with an average annual recapture probability of 0.201. These results are the first to suggest a highly transient population of whale sharks around the Seychelles, indicating that international or at least regional-scale conservation approaches are required.

The Endangered Javan hawk eagle Spizaetus bartelsi is threatened in part by the illegal pet trade. In 1993 the species was declared Indonesia's National Rare/Precious Animal, by former President Soeharto. Trade in the species and keeping it as a pet are illegal. We consolidated data about the species in trade, as observed at bird markets, with private owners, in zoological gardens (to date the species has not been bred in captivity and those in zoos are all wild-caught that were formerly in trade) and wildlife rescue centres, involving at least 68 birds. The average price for the species at bird markets was USD 40 (n = 5). The number observed at bird markets appears to have increased over time. Furthermore, prior to its declaration as a National Rare/Precious Animal it was not considered in trade to be different from other large eagles. There are indications that individuals have been illegally exported to other parts of Asia. In the early 1990s no Javan hawk eagles were kept in zoos but it became in demand in the mid 1990s and now there are 11 in six zoos throughout Java. Law enforcement with respect to trade in eagles appears to be largely absent but nine Javan hawk eagles have been brought to a wildlife rescue centre on Java. Overall, the data suggest there was an increase in trade in Javan hawk eagles after it was declared the National Rare/Precious Animal. When a threatened species is put in the spotlight to highlight its conservation plight, this should be done with close cooperation between conservation NGOs and government organizations, with appropriate legislation and/or management plans to prevent overexploitation.

Biological invasions by non-indigenous species are widely recognized as an important threat to biodiversity. However, the dimension, magnitude and mechanism of the impacts of invasive species remains poorly understood. We assessed the role of invasive plants by comparing vegetation changes that occurred between 1939 and 1999, a snapshot period that coincides with the onset of invasion, in Macabé Reserve in Mauritius. This Reserve was described as biotically homogeneous in 1939. In both surveys all native trees (> 10 cm DBH) were recorded from 10 1,000 m2 random plots. In 1999 the mean richness of plant species in plots was significantly lower: 15 species compared to 28 in 1939. The density and basal area of native species were both 70% lower in 1999. Plots with north and north-west aspects had significantly lower species richness and density than other aspects. We suggest that invasive plants have been the main trigger for the rapid and severe decline of native flora but we also observed that the decline of native species has been more spatially variable in the Reserve than the homogeneous distribution of invasive plants. This indicates that there are other feedback mechanisms driving biodiversity loss.

Western Madagascar's dry forests have suffered greater levels of deforestation than the island's humid eastern forests, and many of the largest remaining contiguous tracts of dry forest are conserved in Kirindy Mite National Park. To assist Kirindy Mite's management plan, we assessed land cover change in and around the Park, remotely sensing forest cover within the Park and an arbitrary 5-km buffer from Landsat images taken in 1990, 2000 and 2006. We then quantified forest cover and change and compared the values between the Park and buffer, interpreting the results through expert knowledge of the area. Kirindy Mite had lower rates of deforestation, higher rates of reforestation, and less net change than the unprotected zone in both 1990–2000 and 2000–2006. Park deforestation rates were approximately one third to one fourth those of the buffer, and Park reforestation rates were approximately double those of the buffer. Net change in the Park fluctuated between the two periods, with deforestation during 2000–2006 slightly exceeding reforestation during 1990–2000. All land cover changes accelerated over the study period, and disturbances in the Park were most frequent near its boundary. To maintain the forest as differences in forest cover across the Park boundary increase, we suggest including or intensifying measures to: (1) expand the Park boundary, simplifying its shape, (2) cooperate with the local people in managing a buffer zone, and (3) increase monitoring to minimize anthropogenic disturbances crossing the Park boundary.

The Siberian marmot Marmota sibirica is a social, colonial-living rodent that ranges widely throughout northern Asia. In Mongolia the species has declined substantially in recent years due to overharvesting for fur, meat and body parts, used locally and traded illegally in international markets. The Siberian marmot is often considered a keystone species because its burrows appear to represent an important resource for a variety of taxa, including carnivores. However, few studies have quantified marmot burrow use by other species, although such use may be important for developing conservation strategies. We monitored patterns of burrow use by 10 radio-collared corsac foxes Vulpes corsac during a study in Mongolia during May–November 2006. Corsacs used marmot burrows regularly and at rates greater than expected by chance, suggesting that burrows represent an important resource for foxes and supporting the notion of the Siberian marmot as a keystone species. As corsacs are also declining in Mongolia we contend that targeted patrols of marmot colonies in certain areas would provide a cost-effective means of protecting both species.