The future persistence of African elephants over the 80 per cent of the species's range that remains outside protected areas is increasingly uncertain in many parts of the continent. Conflict between elephants and agriculturalists is already widespread and can lead to displacement or elimination of elephants, causing a further decline in their range and numbers. ‘Protectionist’ conservation groups have recently attempted to play down the importance of human–elephant conflict, contending that it has been greatly exaggerated by those advocating sustainable use of wildlife. The future of elephants in ecosystems over much of the continent will depend largely upon the attitudes and activities of humans. The realities of survival faced by rural Africans may mean that little attention will be paid to a debate taking place on conservation philosophy in the developed world. Therefore, the IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group (AfESG) is investigating how human land use can be integrated with the needs of elephant populations in Africa's biogeographical regions. Findings from these studies will be used in attempts to benefit elephant conservation and management in the 37 African elephant range states.

The Dominican Republic faces multiple threats to biodiversity. A list of native species of amphibians and reptiles (excluding sea turtles) is presented. Some may have become extinct recently, substantial populations of others have been extirpated, some have greatly reduced numbers, and others appear to be rare or have restricted ranges. Most of the 13 taxa listed are relatively large, vulnerable to human exploitation or introduced predators, and/or have limited distributions and specific habitat requirements. To be listed, evidence must exist that: (1) populations are dwindling, (2) the range is shrinking, or (3) a species must be vulnerable to exploitation and historically rare. Two iguanas (Cyclura cornuta, C. ricordii), two turtles (Trachemys decorata, T. stejnegeri vicina), and one crocodilian (Crocodylus acutus) have been exploited extensively and have long been recognized as threatened or endangered. The ranges of Cyclura ricordii and T. decorata are very localized and the previously widespread ranges of the others have shrunk or become fragmented. A toad (Bufo fluviaticus), a large galliwasp (Celestus anelpistus), and a snake (Alsophis melanichnus) have not been collected recently. Only a few specimens of another galliwasp (C. carraui) and a dwarf gecko (Sphaerodactylus cochranae) have been taken recently. In addition, extensive portions of the habitats of these species have been severely altered. Three other snakes (Alsophis anomalus, laltris agyrtes, I. dorsalis) are rare and may never have been common. Their size and habits render them vulnerable to predation by the introduced mongoose and to decimation by humans who fear and dislike them.

In December 1997 and January 1998 we travelled to the northern section of the Salonga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The park is the largest African rain forest reserve, and was created in 1970 to protect endemic species such as the bonobo Pan paniscus and the Congo peacock Afropavo congensis. However, hardly any data exist on the status of animals in the park. In order to collect basic information, we set up camp at four sites along two rivers, where we followed long trails deep into the forest. A total of 7.5 km line transects were cut from three sites, along which all evidence of large mammals was recorded. Our data indicate that key forest species, including bonobo, bongo Tragelaphus euryceros, black mangabey Lophocebus alterimus and leopard Panthera pardus, are present in reasonable numbers in the part of the park we explored. Bonobo density was calculated at 1.15 animals per sq km, based on nest counts. Some elephants Loxodonta africana survive, despite the enormous hunting pressure. Conservation measures to protect the animals need to be taken urgently.

Elevational and latitudinal patterns of species richness for birds and mammals were compared with human population density in relation to nature reserve designation in two areas of Yunnan Province, China. Results suggest that species richness is not the same for the two areas. In Gaoligongshan Region, species richness is inversely correlated with elevation and altitude, while reserve designation is positively correlated with elevation and latitude. In Jingdong County, reserve designations are positively correlated with elevation, but species richness shows no clear trends. In general, the present situation is strongly influenced by human activities. It appears that reserve designation is mismatched with species richness in Gaoligongshan Region, while there is a better fit between the two in Jingdong County. In both areas, however, it appeared that reserves were located primarily in order to reduce conflict with humans rather than to maximize conservation of biodiversity, probably because humans were responsible for forest—especially primary forest—destruction and degradation in the low-lying areas.

The Bali starling Leucopsar rothschildi is a passerine endemic to the dry monsoon forest of the island of Bali, Indonesia. Habitat conversion and excessive capture for the pet trade brought the species to the verge of extinction in the 1980s. The species is critically endangered because of 1) an extremely small population size, 2) restriction to a small area, 3) illegal trapping, and 4) diminishing suitable habitat left within its natural range. An intricate web of factors prevents the Bali starling from emerging from this precarious situation.

Przewalski's gazelle Procapra przewalskii is endemic to China and is classified as Critically Endangered by IUCN—The World Conservation Union. Historically, the species occurred in parts of the provinces of Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and Qinghai but now appears to be restricted to three populations around Qinghai Lake. These three populations— Bird Island, Hudong–Ketu and Yuanzhe—have all declined since 1988. The populations have been monitored since 1994 and the smallest, on Bird Island, appears to be on the brink of extinction, with only seven individuals being recorded in 1998. In the same year, the Hudong–Ketu population comprised 56 individuals (29.4 per cent males, 50 per cent females and 21 per cent juveniles) and the Yuanzhe population 51 individuals (29.4 per cent males, 43.1 per cent females and 27.5 per cent juveniles). The causes of the declines vary for each population but include loss of habitat as a result of desertification, poaching and, possibly, wolf predation. Human activity and high juvenile mortality are major threats to the continued survival of the gazelle. Conservation measures proposed are: (i) the establishment of a special reserve for Przewalski's gazelle; (ii) a study of the wolf-gazelle relationship and control of the number of wolves if necessary; (iii) a search for remnant populations of Przewalski's gazelle in other regions in their historical range and the identification of suitable sites for translocation and establishment of new populations.

The dry forests constitute one of the most distinct, yet least protected, ecosystems in Madagascar, an island renowned for high levels of endemism. They have generally been considered one of the most intact of Madagascar's climax vegetation types and accordingly have received little conservation effort. In particular, the Mikea Forest, a unique area between the Mangoky and Fiherenana rivers, currently receives negligible formal protection. It contains remarkably diverse plant and reptile assemblages, including several taxa that are found nowhere else, plus the only populations of two threatened bird species: the subdesert mesite Monias benschi and long-tailed ground-roller Uratelornis chimaera. From satellite imagery we estimate that primary forest cover declined by 15.6 per cent from 1962 to 1999, and that the rate of deforestation has increased from 0.35 per cent per annum in 1962–94 to 0.93 per cent per annum over the past 5 years. The most important factors underlying this process are slash-and-burn maize cultivation in the northern Mikea Forest and charcoal production at its southern fringe. Given these alarming circumstances, we suggest that combinations of conservation measures are required to safeguard the biological diversity of the area. Specifically, we recommend the establishment of a large protected area to the north of Manombo, a co-ordinated network of community-based conservation areas throughout the Mikea Forest, development projects to improve agriculture, and a regional research and education centre.

Amazonian forests are experiencing rapid, unprecedented changes that are having major impacts on wildlife, regional hydrology and the global climate. Rates of deforestation and logging have accelerated in recent years and patterns of forest loss are changing, with extensive new highways providing conduits for settlers and loggers into the heart of the Amazon basin. These myriad changes are causing widespread fragmentation of forests. Fragmented landscapes in the Amazon experience diverse changes in forest dynamics, structure, composition and microclimate, and are highly vulnerable to droughts and fires—alterations that negatively affect a wide variety of animal species. In human-dominated lands intensive hunting may interact synergistically with fragmentation to further threaten wildlife populations.

The Amami rabbit Pentalagus furnessi is a rare forest-dwelling form endemic to the Amami and Tokuno Islands in Japan. In order to estimate the distribution and abundance of the Amami rabbit we counted their faecal pellets along forest roads and streams as well as within the forests on Amami and Tokuno Islands during January 1993–March 1995. The number of pellets/ km along a stream gave a practical index for measuring relative abundance. The rabbit was estimated to be distributed over about 370 sq km on Amami Island and 33 sq km on Tokuno Island. There was a large variance in faecal abundance among the survey routes. Some populations were completely isolated and thought to be very small. The size of a local population was positively correlated with those of neighbouring populations and the amount of mature forest relative to other serai stages. We compared the results of this survey with those of previous surveys to find that the total population of this species appears to be declining. Some conservation measures are proposed for forest habitat management, designed to avert the decline of the Amami rabbit and to ensure its preservation.

The history of the Addo elephant population in South Africa, from the creation of the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) in 1931 to the present (every elephant currently living within the park is known), was reconstructed. Photographic records were used as a primary source of historical evidence, in conjunction with all documentation on the population. Elephants can be identified in photographs taken throughout their life by study of the facial wrinkle patterns and blood vessel patterns in their ears. These characteristics are unique for each elephant and do not change during the individual's life. The life histories of individual elephants were traced: dates of birth and death were estimated and, wherever possible, the identity of the individual's mother was ascertained. An annual register of elephants living within the population, from 1931 to the present, was compiled, and maternal family trees constructed. Preliminary demographic analyses for the period 1976–98 are presented. The quantity and quality of photographs taken during these years enabled thorough investigation of the life histories of all elephants. Prior to 1976, insufficient photographs were available to provide reliable data on the exact birth dates and mothers' identities for every calf born. However, data on annual recruitment and mortality are considered sufficiently reliable for use in analyses of the population's growth and recovery.

The forests of the Kilum-Ijim area, around Mount Oku in West Cameroon, are the largest remaining patch of montane forest in West Africa, and the highest in altitude. This important habitat harbours endemic species of both animals and plants but is surrounded by a high density of human settlements: c. 300,000 people live within a day's walk of the forest, which covers only 200 sq km. BirdLife International and the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry, Government of Cameroon, are currently operating the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project, with the overall goal of conserving representative areas of the Cameroon montane forest biome in the long-term. The purpose of the project is toensure that the biodiversity, extent and ecological processes of the Kilum-Ijim Forest are maintained and that the forest is used sustainably by the local communities. The existence of a small Sphagnum community and associated wetland plant species was discovered in 1997 on the summit of Mount Oku, at 2900 m. This site is of extremely high conservation importance because several plant species endemic to the Kilum-Ijim area have been recorded there. In addition, it is the highest Sphagnum bog and the source of the highest stream in West Africa.

The natural forest in Yanbaru, the northern part of the main island of Okinawa (Okinawa Hontô), is an important area for nature conservation, because it has a large number of endemic animals and plants. First, we explain the status of the most important endemic animals of Yanbaru, stressing that most of them are endangered and near extinction. Second, we show especially high species diversity of trees, insects and mites in the Yanbaru forest. However, the integrity of the Yanbaru forest is seriously threatened by clearcutting and complete removal of forest undergrowth. Although an area in Yanbaru occupied by the US Marine Corps has, to date, preserved good natural forest, a new plan to establish seven military helipads in this area is now being examined. Possible outcomes of such a development are evaluated. In addition, requests by Japanese biologists for the Defence Facilities Administration Agency, Japan to consider alternate sites for the helipads are described.

The estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus was formerly abundant in coastal regions of Myanmar, but is now known principally from the lower Ayeyarwady Delta. We conducted a survey during January 1999 to assess quantitatively the status of crocodile populations in protected areas of the lower delta. Spotlight counts were conducted along 275.4 km of waterways. Sixty-one crocodiles (50 juveniles, 4 subadults, 2 adults and 5 eyeshines) were observed in the Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS), and the total population was estimated to be less than 100. The Kadônkani and Pyindaye Reserved Forests (RF) apparently no longer support viable populations. Although crocodiles remain critically endangered in the region, a comparison with survey data from 1980 suggests localized recovery is occurring in MKWS. Population declines are attributed to a combination of commercial skin hunting, habitat loss, drowning in fishing nets and over-collection of living animals to supply crocodile farms. A programme of law enforcement, habitat protection and head-starting juveniles is necessary to ensure the continued survival of estuarine crocodiles in the Ayeyarwady Delta.

A spring (1999) census was conducted of great bustards Otis tarda in north-western Morocco, where a poorly known population of this species occurs. Sixty-four birds were seen in four distinct areas. Adult males were seen displaying at three of these areas, indicating that they are probably traditional lek sites. No adult males were observed in the fourth area and its status as a lek site is uncertain. Two further sites were visited but no birds were seen. Two lst-year males were seen with their mothers, demonstrating successful breeding in 1998. We argue that the small number of birds, a population sex ratio of 1:3.3 in favour of females, evidence for a range contraction, and probable isolation from other great bustard populations mean that this population is now extremely endangered and will decline to extinction unless conservation measures are implemented immediately.

Population biology and socio-ecology of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis were investigated during a 3-year study period in the Algoa Bay region, South Africa. The dolphins inhabit a narrow strip of coastal waters, mostly less than 15 m deep. Groups are small (mean = 7 animals) and their daily activities concentrate around shallow rocky reefs—the primary feeding grounds. Dependence on these restricted, shallow-water habitats is evident throughout the year. Site fidelity is generally weak and is subject to seasonal migration, although female site fidelity seems to be related to reproductive stage. Births occur predominantly in summer. The social system is highly fluid, structured to some degree by sex and age, ‘matesearching’ behaviour being the most likely male reproductive strategy. The dolphins inhabiting Algoa Bay are part of a substantially larger population that uses a considerable length of the coastal zone. Estimated population parameters are generally low, as are modelled population growth rates, and an increase in the population size seems unlikely. Humpback dolphins appear to be vulnerable to negative environmental pressure and the alteration/destruction of inshore habitats is probably among the greatest threats to them. Conservation of this species should be given high priority and be seen as an important part of integrated coastal zone management. Establishment of multiple-use management areas with controlled ecotourism and several priority sites declared as strict reserves seems to be the most effective conservation approach. In order to be successful, conservation and management policies need to recognize the needs and lifestyles of the local inhabitants.

The aim of this study was to make preliminary assessments of the effects of human activities on the gorillas and other wildlife in the Dzanga-Ndoki Park and broader Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Reserve (RDS), Central African Republic. During a month-long survey in 1997, observation and sign of humans and large mammals, including ape nest-sites, were recorded on 81.2 km of line transects in three sectors of the park and reserve. Human activities, including intensities of logging and hunting, appeared to decrease with distance from the population centres and were lower in the park than in the reserve sectors. Encounter rates with sign of duikers Cephalophus spp., monkeys Cercopithecus spp. and Cercocebus albigena, elephants Loxodonta africana, and gorillas Gorilla gorilla gorilla were generally lower in regions of high human activity in the reserve than in the park sectors. Nevertheless, gorilla nest-site densities did not vary significantly between sectors or with human activity levels. A high frequency of zero (bare ground) nests at RDS suggests that gorilla surveys that rely on line transect methods and use nest decomposition rates from other studies may sometimes underestimate gorilla densities. This study suggests that current levels of exploitation in managed hunting zones of national forest reserves may be negatively affecting targeted wildlife populations in these zones. Assessments should be a regular part of efforts to monitor the health of wildlife populations in managed protected zones. Participation by Central Africans in research will continue to benefit conservation and development efforts.

The Siamese crocodile Crocodylus siamensis, now regarded as one of the world's most endangered crocodilians, was formerly common in the wetlands of southern Vietnam. Populations are thought to have declined in recent years, although quantitative status assessments are unavailable. We surveyed five areas previously believed to harbour the only remaining Siamese crocodile populations in Vietnam, and our results strongly suggest that viable populations are no longer extant. Crocodiles were not observed during spotlight counts of Crocodile Swamp (Nam Cat Tien National Park) or Lac Lake. Crocodiles do not occur in Upper or Lower Krong Pach Reservoirs, and these degraded sites no longer constitute suitable habitat. Remnant populations may exist in the Sere Pok River and Tay Son Lake, but these crocodiles remain subject to persecution. Population declines are attributed to a combination of hunting, habitat destruction, incidental capture in fishing nets and collecting for crocodile farms. Reintroduction to Nam Cat Tien National Park is recommended.

The population of the threatened proboscis monkey Nasalis larvatus, a Bornean endemic, in the Pulau Kaget Nature Reserve, South Kalimantan, Indonesia, is extinct. Until 1997, this small, isolated population, estimated at c. 300 individuals, had been pushed towards the fringes of the reserve by illegal agricultural expansion. As food sources became depleted, the population apparently exceeded the decreasing carrying capacity of the reserve and was reported to be starving to death. As a solution, 84 animals were translocated to nearby, unprotected sites, resulting in 13 fatalities. An additional 61 animals were taken to a zoo, where 60 per cent died within 4 months of their capture. There was neither a proper pre-translocation assessment of the suitability of the release sites, nor a proper post-translocation monitoring programme for the released animals. We conclude that the Pulau Kaget reserve and its proboscis monkeys have been poorly managed. We provide some suggestions to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts in Indonesia.

There is a large illegal trade in trapped houbara bustards Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii, which are smuggled into the Middle East for falconry. Mortality is high and is associated with poor transport conditions, malnutrition, overcrowding and exposure to multiple infectious diseases, in particular aspergillosis, avian pox and paramyxovirus type 1 virus. Other pathogens include Salmonella sp., Pseudomoims sp., Trichomonas sp., intestinal endoparasites, avian leucosis, reovirus, adeno-virus, paramyxovirus type 2 and Chlamydia sp. Various regional initiatives have been initiated to confiscate and rehabilitate illegally trapped birds. This paper reviews the causes of morbidity and mortality seen in illegally traded houbara bustards and provides health recommendations for those involved in rehabilitation.