Many studies supported that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have worse executive functions (EFs) when compared to typically developmental (TD) children in many domains, such as planning, flexibility, inhibition, and self-monitoring. The current study aims to use an adapted version of the computerized tower test to investigate the EFs of children with ASD. Furthermore, the researcher also assessed children's EFs-related behaviors in their schools using a teacher-filled behavior rating inventory of executive function, 2nd edition (BRIEF-2).

61 Children aged 7 to 12 years old (M = 9.23) were included in the current study. 29 of them were in the ASD group, and 31 of them were in the TD group. All participants conducted an adapted computerized tower test. All participants' teachers completed BRIEF-2 to investigate their EFs-related behaviors in their schools.

The results indicated that there were no significant differences in the tower test between the ASD group and TD group in all indexes. Therefore, it implied that the current indexes might not be sensitive enough to distinguish whether a child has ASD or not. In addition, we further investigate the correlations between the tower test and the teacher-filled BRIEF-2. We found the different patterns in the two groups. In the ASD group, we found that the task-monitor index was positively correlated with total-number-of-rule-violations, total-complete-time, and total-rule-violations-per-item-ratio. The task-monitor index was negatively correlated with total-achievement-score, implying that poorer ability to monitor tasks leads to a longer completion time, more rule violations, and a lower total achievement score. Moreover, we also found a high correlation between the organization-of-materials in BRIEF-2 and total-complete-time in the tower test, suggesting the long problem-solving time in ASD groups is highly related to the disability of keeping working space ordered. In addition, we found that the shift index is positively correlated with total-complete-time and total-rule-violations-per-item-ratio. Hence, it indicates that those with poor flexibility in solving problems tend to need more time to complete tasks and violate more rules in ASD groups. In the TD group, we only found the correlation effects were significant between inhibition and self-monitor in the BRIEF-2 and the total-rule-violations-per-item-ratio in the tower test. It suggested that individuals with behavioral regulation problems, such as impulse control and monitoring problems are more likely to make rule violations. The result indicated that behavioral regulations play a more significant role in the TD group. In contrast, cognitive and emotional regulations are more critical in ASD children.

Our findings found no significant difference in the computerized tower test between children with and without ASD, suggesting that the current indexed might not be sensitive enough to differentiate children with or without ASD. However, the results of the correlation between the tower test and teacher-filled BRIEF-2 showed that different patterns might be the cause of the EF performances between the two groups, indicating that there might be a different domain of EFs the children used in the tower test between two groups.

Therefore, further research could focus on developing new indexes in the Tower test and finding the EF mechanism of ASD children with different approaches.

Executive functioning (EF) is impaired in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and EF challenges are exacerbated in youth with ASD and ADHD (ASD+ADHD), which may impact diagnostic timing. We hypothesized youth with ASD+ADHD would be more impaired in EF (as opposed to other functional domains) compared to autistic youth without ADHD (ASD-only), with particular deficits in metacognition and inhibition. We also predicted youth with ASD+ADHD would be at significant risk for delayed ASD diagnosis and that greater EF challenges would predict earlier age of ASD diagnosis across groups.

Data from a clinical database was extracted for 400 youth who received a new diagnosis of ASD after age 5, either with a co-occurring diagnosis of ADHD (ASD+ADHD group: n=297; Mage of ASD diagnosis=10.49; 25.9% female; 48.1% white) or without a co-occurring ADHD diagnosis (ASD-only group: n=100; Mage of ASD diagnosis=12.02; 34.0% female; 44.7% white). EF was measured with the BRIEF-2 parent-report, and ASD symptom strength was measured with the SRS-2 School Age form. Independent samples t-tests investigated whether a) the ASD+ADHD group was uniquely impaired in EF compared to the ASD-only group, b) parents of ASD+ADHD report elevated EF problems, and c) the ASD+ADHD group was at significant risk for delayed ASD diagnosis. Pearson correlations examined the association between age of ASD diagnosis and EF for each diagnostic group. Hierarchical linear regressions further analyzed whether specific EF domains concurrently predicted age of ASD diagnosis, after controlling for the known predictors of assigned sex at birth, FSIQ, and ASD symptom strength.

The ASD+ADHD group had greater challenges in overall EF (t=-6.42, p<.001), metacognitive skills (t=-6.47, p <.001), and inhibition skills (t=-7.06, p<.001). There was no significant difference in parent-reported autism symptoms between the ASD and ASD+ADHD groups (t=0.973, p=.331). The ASD+ADHD group received ASD diagnoses earlier than the ASD-only group (t=4.194, p<.001). In the ASD-only group, age of ASD diagnosis was not significantly correlated to overall EF, metacognitive skills, nor inhibition skills (ps>.05). In the ASD+ADHD group, ASD diagnosis was significantly related to overall EF (r(297)=.128, p=.027) and metacognitive skills (r(297)=.329, p<.001) but not inhibition skills (r(297)=.078, p=.180). Hierarchical linear regressions controlling for assigned sex at birth, FSIQ, and SRS-2 T-scores were used to determine whether these EF components significantly predicted age of ASD diagnosis. Overall EF did not predict age of ASD diagnosis in the ASD+ADHD group (ß=.034, t=1.417, p=.157), but metacognitive skills did (ß=.123, t=5.582, p<.001).

Our findings suggest youth with ASD+ADHD have greater impairment in overall EF, metacognition, and inhibition compared to ASD-only youth, despite similar levels of ASD traits, consistent with hypotheses. Contrary to our hypothesis, youth with ASD+ADHD in this sample were diagnosed with ASD earlier. However, results also suggest EF problems, specifically metacognitive deficits, predict later age of ASD diagnosis. Future research is needed to replicate findings and better understand how EF and other functional domains predict ASD diagnostic timing.

The present study aims to better understand learning strategies and difficulties in autistic youth. Previous studies have found that autistic youth have difficulties with executive function skills and poorer performance in memory and learning tasks, especially those that require spontaneous retrieval of information compared to memory tasks that provide external retrieval cues. Additionally, it has been theorized that autistic youth employ a serial approach rather than a semantic approach to learning. The current study hypothesized that the autistic sample will have (a) significant difficulties in learning and memory, (b) employ a serial approach more frequently and a semantic approach less frequently than the CVLT normative sample, and (c) will benefit significantly when provided with external retrieval cues.

Archival data from a mixed clinical and research database were examined for this study. Participants include 740 autistic individuals between the ages of 5.50 and 24.3 (M = 10.90, SD = 2.98). The sample consisted of 22.2% girls and 34.0% Black, Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC). All individuals had a FSIQ > 70 (M = 99.91, SD = 16.09) and were clinically diagnosed with autism using DSM-IV-TR or DSM-V criteria by a clinician at an autism diagnostic center. Participants completed the age-appropriate California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT, Delis et al. 1987) which is a neuropsychological measure that examines verbal memory and learning. One-sample t-tests were used to examine the sample's verbal memory abilities and their learning strategies. A paired sample t-test was used to evaluate the sample's performance before and after an external retrieval cue was given.

Results from the one-sample t-tests indicate that the autistic sample performed worse than the CVLT normative data with a large effect size (t(739)= -9.440, p <.001, Cohen's d = 1.292). Secondly, the autistic sample was less likely to use a semantic learning approach (t(739) = -1.841, p = .033, Cohen's d = 1.234), but not more likely to use a serial approach (t(739)=-.040, p=.484) compared to the normative sample. Lastly, the paired sample t-test results show that the sample performed significantly better after receiving the external retrieval cue (t(739)=-2.570, p=.005, Cohen's d = .770).

The data supported the first hypothesis; autistic individuals have increased difficulties with learning and verbal memory. However, the data only partially support the second hypothesis. The sample was less likely to use a semantic approach to learning but was not more likely to use serial learning. This finding is opposed to the Weak Central Coherence (WCC) theory, which suggests that autistic individuals are more likely to have detail-oriented, bottom-up cognitive thinking styles, consistent with a serial learning strategy. Lastly, data showed improvement when autistic individuals received a retrieval cue. This result supports the Task Support Hypothesis (TSH) and indicates that autistic individuals benefit from cues for memory recall, particularly those that capitalize on their areas of strength. This study did not use a control group and is limited in ethno-racial diversity; therefore, these are preliminarily findings that require further replication.

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, many families face barriers in accessing critical services for their children. However, there is a disproportionate impact on families of children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDDs), particularly those who are dependant on receiving regular services. The current study investigated how service delivery has changed for children and families with NDDs during the COVID-19 pandemic, to identify which groups are most at risk for service disruption and negative outcomes, and to provide actionable recommendations for community agencies that provide early interventions for future pandemics.

Data was collected in the fall and winter of 2020/2021 during the Covid-19 pandemic. Families were recruited from a local service provider in British Columbia whose Early Years Support services delivery model was changed to online delivery during the pandemic. Children had a diagnosis of NDD or were on the waitlist for an assessment. Overall, 26 families participated in a semi-structured interview that asked about their experiences of receiving services for their children during the pandemic. Of these families, 20 subsequently completed online questionnaires that asked about their parenting stress levels and their children’s behaviour throughout the pandemic. Families of a range of compositions were drawn from different ethnicities (30% white, 25% South Asian, 20% Filipino, and the remaining 5% identified as Indigenous, African or East Asian). The mean age of children was 3.80 years (SD =0.72).

From the survey, we found that 58% of parents reported higher than average levels of mental health and behavioural challenges in their children during the Covid-19 pandemic. In addition, 45% of parents reported higher than average parenting stress levels. Qualitative interview data indicated that most parents reported positive experiences with receiving services during the Covid-19 pandemic and reported feeling supported even with social distancing measures. However, families also reported increased stress levels and isolation, particularly those who have children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, who rely on early funding (06 years) and early services. One of the themes that emerged from parents who were on the waitlist to receive an assessment was that wait times around assessments were very long, which contributed to parent stress levels. Parents also reported concerns around wait times to access services and difficulty of accessing online services due to internet and connection issues.

The current study identified central themes of stressors and barriers experienced by families and children with NDDs in service delivery. Overall, parents reported satisfaction in changes in service delivery in most ways; however, they also reported stresses and barriers that included wait times, increased isolation, and accessing online services. Actionable steps to reduce family stress include better communication between service providers and families for wait times, and more variability in appointment times. Specific recommendations for current and future pandemics will be expanded on in the poster.

This study seeks to describe the context and contents of YouTube videos featuring non-evidence-based practices (NEBPs) for autism spectrum disorder, including recent fad usage of transcranial magnetic stimulation.

A sample search of autism intervention-related YouTube videos was conducted to reflect the experience of caregivers researching autism intervention information on the internet. Exclusion criteria was applied to create a preliminary dataset. The videos were categorized into general evidence-based practice (EBP), non-evidence-based practice (NEBP), and both EBP and NEBP. The NEBP-related videos were then qualitatively described using a priori codes based on the literature regarding signs of pseudoscience, as well as an iteratively developed codebook through a constant comparative method between two independent coders.

Total videos from the YouTube search using the query "Autism Treatment" were capped at 150 videos. Total videos in English were 138. Total discrete videos (non-repeated) were 134. Total NEBP-related discrete videos were 62 (46% of final dataset); Total EBP-related videos were 38 (28.3% of final dataset); and total videos containing both EBP and NEBP as subject matter were 25 (18.6% of final dataset). Of the NEBP-related in the final dataset, the most frequent NEBP which occurred was stem cell therapy (n=26), followed by the Son-Rise program (n=13), Cannabis/marijuana (n=5), transcranial magnetic stimulation/magnetic e-resonance therapy (n=5), neurofeedback (n=1), brain rehabilitation (n=1), suramin (n=2), fecal transplants (n=2), Hyperbaric Oxygen therapy (n=1), Ayurvedic medicine (n=1), virtual reality (n=1), and others. The constant comparative method of coding yielded results specific to videos about NEBPs in autism, including: statements declaring a treatment will be effective, a banner on the YouTube page indicating if the channel is from a reputable source, a parent testimonial, a parent or caregiver display of emotion with respect to treatment efficacy, statements regarding pre-intervention repetitive or challenging behaviors, statements regarding demonstrated effects of the treatment, statements of a definitive cause of autism, statements regarding the severity of the autism in the treatment subject, specific words in reference to autism, including "disease", "toxin", or "inflammation", discussion of the financial aspect of the treatment, and videos with both high and low production values.

The likelihood of a caregiver encountering and watching videos containing NEBP-related material when using a general query to search the internet for information on autism intervention is high. Additionally, videos regarding NEBPs have more engagements (e.g., likes, comments, shares) than videos regarding EBPs, oftentimes by multitudes. The information contained within videos in which an NEBP is the subject aligns with pre-established warning signs for pseudoscience for autism interventions, however this study also contributes new warning signs through the construction of the iterative codebook. Specifically, statements about treatment efficacy in the absence of cited research, an emotional parent testimony about the individual with autism's experience with the NEBP therapy, statements regarding behavioral improvements linked to participation in the therapy oftentimes in the context of inflated claims, and clear and confident statements regarding the cause of autism with no cited research.

Relative to their typically developing peers, autistic individuals experience greater difficulties in domains of functioning that are relevant to learning and adult outcomes, such as sensory sensitivities, anxiety, and social. However, little is known about how difficulties in these domains relate to the receipt of special education services as well as adult outcomes, such as vocational achievement. The current study sought to fill this gap by examining if difficulties in various learning-related domains as ascertained via the Learning Needs Screening Tool (LNST) were associated with historical special education receipt and vocational status.

400 autistic adults, recruited via the Simons Powering Autism Research (SPARK) participant registry Research Match service, participated in this study (40.5% male, mean age=28.9 years). All participants completed the LNST, which collects responses to 13 core questions about learning (such as challenges with memorization, note taking, spelling and identifying arithmetic signs), as well as 7 additional questions with checkbox and free response options, and yields a total score from 0-30. LNST item 14 and its response options (1-9) capture suspected causes of learning difficulties (e.g., 'too much noise or activity bothers me,' 'I get nervous taking tests'). These individual questions as well as the total of endorsed learning related challenges were then evaluated in relation to historical special education receipt (“yes” vs. “no”) and vocational outcomes (“yes” vs. “no” engaging in 10+ hours of postsecondary education or employment without supports), as assessed via the Taylor Vocational Index.

Logistic regression was utilized to predict the dependent variables of interest. Models included sex assigned at birth and age in the first step as covariates. Then either the total of learning related challenges endorsed or the 9 individual learning-related challenges from the LNST were included as independent variables of interest. For historical special education receipt, two items - “It’s hard for me to work by myself” (B = .78, p<.05) and “I get nervous taking tests” (B = .49, p<.05) were positively associated with a history of special education services. For vocational outcomes, the total learning related challenges (B = -.25, p<.001) as well as endorsement of one item -“It’s hard for me to work by myself” (B = -.88, p=<.05) were associated with poorer vocational outcomes.

These findings shed light on the possible learning-related challenges that are experienced by autistic adults. Further examination of the role these learning related challenges play in the receipt of special education and on vocational outcomes is warranted. In particular, difficulties with independence in work was related to both special education receipt and poorer vocational outcomes, indicating that it may be a fruitful area of focus for vocational training programs.

Employment is crucial in the lives of adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as gainful occupational activity creates opportunities to form meaningful social relationships, participate in community life, and become financially independent. Impairments in pragmatic language skills (i.e., use of language to achieve social goals) negatively impact the ability to make and maintain cooperative work relationships with employers and coworkers, which are critical aspects of employment. A specific pragmatic skill key to workplace communication includes using a suitable degree of politeness, loosely defined as demonstrating the appreciation of the thoughts and feelings of your listener. Politeness can be measured with politeness markers (PMs). Appropriate PM use promotes positive, cooperative relationships. There are two main categories of PMs: positive and negative PMs. Positive PMs express appreciation or praise to the listener. Negative PMs avoid conflict and marks consideration of the thoughts and feelings of the listener. Crucially, negative PMs require more monitoring of social boundaries as they require consideration of the conversational partner’s potential reactions to statements and their emotional states. This makes PMs a novel new approach to evaluating speech in persons with ASD. Because PMs serve a purely social function in language, they include non-tangible words, such as would, could, may, or might. The current study explores the utility of an employment-specific social communication assessment tool, the Voicemail Elicitation Task (VET), in persons with ASD. The VET has proven sensitive to identifying social communication deficits in persons with traumatic brain injury.

The current cohort comparative study included a sample of young adults with ASD (n=22) and neurotypical controls (NTC; n=10). All participants were given the VET, which utilizes a standardized computerized language sampling procedure that assesses politeness markers (PMs) in work-related role-play scenarios. The outcome measure of the VET is PMs per minute (PMpM) which is obtained by dividing the sum of PMs by the speaking time (in minutes). Higher PMpM indicates higher PM use (more politeness), while lower PMpM indicates lower PM use (less politeness).

The preliminary results indicated a significantly lower total PMpM in ASD participants (mean: 13.68 SD: 6.28) compared to NTCs (mean 18.72, SD: 3.65), p = 0.026. Post hoc analysis indicated that the differences in groups were driven by significantly lower negative PMs rates used by the ASD group (mean 9.18, SD: 5.77) compared to NTCs (mean: 16.30, SD: 7.78), p = 0.002, while both groups were similar in their mean level of positive PMs use, p = 0.442.

This study represents an important step toward validating the VET for use in ASD, which will improve the capacity of the field to address unemployment in this population. The results of the current study indicate that individuals with ASD show deficits in PM use which could impact their interpersonal relationships within the workplace environment. Designing interventions to target these deficits could help provide better employment outcomes for this population.

Nearly 85% of adults on the autism spectrum are unemployed, although nearly 70% of those who are unemployed express a desire and willingness to work. The job interview has been identified as a significant obstacle to obtaining employment by young adults on the spectrum. A growing field of research has been focused on evaluating innovative training tools to improve interview skills. Our previous work shows that a virtual reality job interview training (VR-JIT) tool improves certain job interview skills (such as sounding professional, establishing rapport), but does not improve the ability to speak about personal strengths and abilities. The current study combined VR-JIT with a new training tool: Kessler Foundation Strength Identification and Expression (KF-STRIDE), an intervention grounded in principles of positive psychology. KF-STRIDE targets identification of personal character strengths and expressing those strengths to employers in a socially appropriate way.

The current study evaluated data from 20 autistic youth, randomized to an experimental group (n=10) and a services-as-usual (SAU) control group (n=10). Those in the experimental group participated in a 12 session intervention (9 sessions using VR-JIT and 3 sessions in KF-STRIDE). Each session was roughly one hour. Job interview performance was assessed by video-recorded mock job interviews rated by blinded assessors pre- and post- the intervention. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to examine differences in job interview skills from baseline to follow up in both groups.

The intervention group showed a significant improvement from baseline to follow-up in job interview skills in general (p = .004), and specifically sharing strengths about themselves to a future employer (p = .004). No significant differences were seen from baseline to follow-up in the SAU group. Conclusions: Individuals on the autism spectrum are significantly underemployed, which negatively impacts one’s ability to lead an independent life. Two innovative tools: VR-JIT and KF-STRIDE successfully improved job interview skills, including the ability to identify and express personal strengths. These findings indicate that these combined tools may help to improve employment skills for individuals on the autism spectrum.

Participation in sports likely confers multiple benefits for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Adolescent student athletes often undergo preseason testing as part of a broader concussion management program for schools. This study compares preseason neurocognitive functioning and symptom reporting between high school athletes with and without ASD.

Participants were derived from a database of 60,751 adolescent student athletes from Maine (aged 13-18) who completed preseason testing between 2009 and 2019 and did not have missing data on the history question relating to ASD. There were 425 students (0.7%) who self-reported having been diagnosed with ASD in their health history. Cognitive functioning was measured by ImPACT, and the Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS) was used to obtain symptom ratings. Group differences between the ASD and the population control group on the five ImPACT cognitive test composite raw scores and the total symptom score from the PCSS were examined using Mann-Whitney U tests.

Compared to the population control sample, those with ASD reported much greater rates of comorbid conditions: attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (50.1% vs. 10.3%), special education (39.2% vs. 4.4%), learning disabilities (43.8% vs. 4.4%), and prior treatment for a psychiatric condition (23.4% vs. 7.5%). Groups differed significantly across all neurocognitive composites (p values <.002). However, all differences were negligible in terms of the magnitude of the effects (r values range from 0.01-0.03). The groups also differed significantly on the PCSS total symptom score (p<.001), but the magnitude of the difference was negligible (r=.031). Among boys, the ASD group endorsed 21 of the 22 symptoms at a greater rate. Among girls, the ASD group endorsed 11 of the 22 individual baseline symptoms at a greater rate than the control group. Examples of symptoms that were endorsed at a higher rate among both boys and girls with ASD: sensitivity to noise (girls: odds ratio, OR=4.38; boys: OR=4.99), numbness or tingling (girls: OR=3.67; boys: OR=3.25), difficulty remembering (girls: OR=2.01; boys: OR=2.49), difficulty concentrating (girls: OR=1.82; boys: OR=2.40), sleeping more than usual (girls: OR=1.94; boys: OR=1.97), sensitivity to light (girls: OR=1.82; boys: OR=1.76), sadness (girls: OR=1.72; boys: OR=2.56), nervousness (girls: OR=1.80; boys: OR=2.27), and feeling more emotional (girls: OR=1.79; boys: OR=2.84).

Students with ASD participating in organized sports are likely high functioning, on average. There were small differences in their cognitive test scores compared to the population control sample. They endorsed more symptoms, however, during baseline preseason testing. If they sustain a concussion, their clinical management should be more intensive to maximize the likelihood of swift and favorable recovery.

Individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience negative self-evaluation, indicated by low levels of self-esteem and describing themselves more negatively to others. Variations in reading comprehension, difficulty identifying emotions, and masking (camouflaging of autistic traits) make it difficult to accurately measure self-evaluation of individuals with ASD using subjective self-report scales such as the Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale. Therefore, it is important to explore more objective methods of measuring self-evaluation in ASD. Sentiment analysis is a popular Natural Language Processing (NLP) technique used to quantify the emotional content of language programmatically by automatically transforming text into a data frame of words represented as individual values or tokens. Each token can then be categorized as positive or negative with a sentiment dictionary. The current study aims to investigate an automated sentiment analysis approach to evaluate self-evaluation by quantifying implicit linguistic affective valence of ASD participants' verbal self-describing statements in a naturalistic setting. Specifically, we evaluated the frequency of positive or negative words used during a mock job interview in which individuals with ASD were asked to describe themselves. We then examined the relationship between positive and negative word usage and standard self-report measures of self-evaluation.

Twenty-four young adults with ASD were included in this study with an age range of 15-24 and a mean age of 19.2 years. Participants completed a battery of assessments including a mock job interview in which they were asked to describe themselves as a measure of implicit self-esteem. Self-esteem and knowledge of personal strengths was assessed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Strengths Knowledge Scale, respectively. Interview transcripts were automatically transformed into word token data frames using the tidytext package in Rstudio. Frequencies of positive and negative words were calculated and their ratio to total word count was used to measure the implicit positivity and negativity of transcripts.

There was a significant negative correlation between the frequency of negative sentiment in transcripts and measure on the Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale (r = -.376, p = .035) and the Strengths Knowledge Scale (r = -.387, p = .031) indicating that individuals with higher self-esteem and knowledge of their strengths used fewer negative words when talking during a mock interview.

While our results are preliminary, this pilot study represents the first to use automated sentiment analysis to study self-evaluation in individuals with ASD. The use of this technique on natural linguistic data collected through a mock job interview allows researchers to quantitatively analyze the emotionality of transcriptions and create insights that would otherwise be unavailable using more subjective qualitative techniques. Limited research into self-evaluation in this population has yielded inconsistent results, relying too heavily upon qualitative or self-report measures. The ability to programmatically quantify affective valence in transcripts is a time and cost-effective technique for improving validity of future measures of self-evaluation.

Children with Down syndrome (DS) show marked differences in their early development when compared to typically developing (TD) peers. Major domains of challenge include intellectual abilities, executive functioning, and structural language. Children with DS have a unique profile of strengths and weaknesses that must be considered when comparing them to TD children, especially in terms of Theory of Mind (ToM). ToM encompasses the developmental milestones reached early in childhood when children develop the ability to conceptualize and understand others' thoughts, emotions, perspectives, and intentions. In TD children, these abilities typically begin to mature around 4-6 years of age, while in children with DS, delays are observed relative to chronological age expectations. Evidence shows that children with DS have impaired ToM abilities; however, these deficits might be more related to underlying delays in structural language, rather than a fundamental misunderstanding of social cues. The present study seeks to fill gaps in the literature by using a nonverbal assessment (The Penny Hiding Game; PHG) to evaluate a) ToM abilities in children with DS relative to younger TD peers of a similar mental ability level and b) relationships between ToM performance and structural language skills.

25 children with DS (60% F, M=11.39 years) and 25 TD children (40% F, M = 5.37, range = 3 to 7) participated. Participants' structural language abilities were briefly assessed using the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test- III Listening Comprehension Test (Oral Discourse Comprehension subcomponent). ToM was assessed using the PHG.

Univariate analysis of covariance was used to explore differences in ToM performance between groups while controlling for mental ability level. Children with DS (M= 2.79, SD= 2.23) performed significantly worse than TD peers (M= 4.28, SD= 1.87) on the ToM task (F(1, 60)= 4.5, p= .038). Linear regression was used to assess associations between ToM and structural language abilities. When both groups were lumped together, there was a modest association between ToM and Listening Comprehension scores (R2 = .12, F (1, 55) = 7.29, p= .009). However, when groups were considered separately, significant associations were not observed (p>.1).

The DS group showed markedly diminished ToM performance compared to TD controls, as expected based on the literature. However, data did not suggest a clear association between ToM and structural language skills. While an association was observed when groups were lumped, this relationship was likely driven by group differences in both ToM and structural language skills. Future research should examine the relationship between ToM performance, different aspects of language functioning, and the cooccurrence of autistic traits among children with DS in order to augment our understanding of linguistic and social correlates of ToM performance in young children with DS.

22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS) is a multi-systemic disorder with great clinical heterogeneity. It is the most common microdeletion syndrome and one of the most common genetic causes of developmental delays (e.g., motor/speech). 22q11DS is estimated to occur between 1/2,000-4,000 live births. However, the diverse clinical presentation of 22q11DS and health inequities that impact ethnically, racially, linguistically, and economically marginalized groups, make early identification, diagnosis, and access to beneficial early interventions (e.g., speech/behavioral therapy) even more challenging. Therefore, 22q11DS’ true prevalence may be larger than documented. Challenges associated with diagnosis, as well as neurocognitive, psychiatric, and medical co-morbidities associated with 22q11DS have been reported to affect the quality of life and well-being of people living with 22q11DS and their families. Yet, there is limited longitudinal data on lifelong functional outcomes of this population and the social factors that may shape them. This study aimed to 1) review the extant literature on adaptive functioning across the lifespan in 22q11DS and 2) report on relevant social and structural variables considered in the literature to contextualize adaptive functioning.

A scoping review was conducted between January-June 2022 across six electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, Ovid MEDLINE, EBSCO, and Embase. The 'building block’ method was used to identify and design a comprehensive search strategy used to scan publications’ titles, keywords, and abstracts. Citation mining strategy was utilized to identify additional relevant studies. The following inclusion criteria was met: 1) empirical studies conducted in humans, 2) participants with confirmed diagnosis of 22q11DS, 3) evaluation of adaptive functioning, 4) use of at least one standardized measure of adaptive functioning and 5) written or translated into English or Spanish.

Eighty-four records were initially identified. After deduplication, abstract screening, and full record reviews, a total of twenty-two studies met inclusion criteria for this review. Only eight publications explored adaptive skills as one of their primary outcomes. Clinically significant symptoms of anxiety, withdrawal, anhedonia, and flat affect were associated with worse functional outcomes. Fifteen studies reported between one and three demographic variables (e.g., race/ethnicity, years of education), and only two studies documented mental health treatment status/history. Most studies reported lower adaptive abilities in participants with 22q11DS independent from their cognitive abilities, but the majority of participants scored between the below average range and exceptionally low range on measures of intellectual functioning. Nonetheless, information on contextual variables (e.g., educational/occupational opportunities) that may help to interpret these findings was lacking.

Methodological differences (e.g., definition and measurement of adaptive functioning), recruitment bias (small, clinic-based identified samples) and lack of information regarding contextual level factors, may be limiting our understanding of the neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric trajectories of people with 22q11DS. It is vital to increase representative samples in epidemiological/clinical studies, as well as research examining the social and structural factors (e.g., access to healthcare, socioeconomic position) that impact functional outcomes in this population to promote public health policies that can improve brain health across the lifespan.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs). Clinical diagnosis of autism is often complicated by heterogeneity in core autism traits and other individual characteristics (e.g., cognition). Previous literature suggests that degree of autism characteristics, cognitive ability, and age contribute to identifying homogenous subgroups of autism, which facilitates prognosis and treatment planning. The present study extends these findings by examining profiles of cognition, age, and autism characteristics (measured by the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition [ADOS-2]) in a clinical sample of school-aged children presenting with concern for possible autism. Profiles are also described according to whether children received an autism diagnosis and clinician ratings of emotional/behavioral problems, which have been shown to influence diagnostic clarity when assessing for autism.

We conducted a retrospective chart review of 188 children (68% male) ages 4-17 years (M=8.9) who were referred for an autism evaluation. Latent profile analysis was conducted using age, ADOS-2 Social Affect (SA) and RRB scores, and verbal and non-verbal intelligence quotients (VIQ/NVIQ). Model fit comparing 2, 3, 4, and 5-class models was assessed using log-likelihood, AIC, BIC, SABIC, entropy, and Lo, Mendell, and Rubin (LMR) and bootstrap likelihood ratio (BLRT) tests. The frequency of clinical autism diagnosis and ADOS-2 emotional/behavioral problems were calculated across profiles in the best-fitting model.

The 5-class model demonstrated the best fit. The following characteristics were observed across five profiles: 1) mean age = 9.5 years, Low Average VIQ/NVIQ, and low SA (M=5.2) and RRB (M=0.7) scores; 2) mean age = 7.3 years, Average VIQ/NVIQ, and low SA (M=3.1) and RRB (M=0.8) scores; 3) mean age = 10.1 years, Low Average VIQ/NVIQ, and high SA (M=11.3) and RRB (M=4.2) scores; 4) mean age = 8.8 years, Average VIQ/NVIQ, and moderately high SA (M=9.6) and RRB (M=3.4) scores; and 5) Exceptionally High VIQ, Above Average NVIQ, and comparatively mid-level SA (M=6.6) and RRB (M=3.6) scores. Autism diagnosis and emotional/behavioral problems varied across profiles. Profiles 1 and 2 contained lower diagnosis rates (33% and 10%, respectively). Profiles 3 and 4 contained the highest diagnosis rates (97% in both), followed by profile 5 (75%). In terms of emotional/behavioral problems, Profile 2 exhibited the highest overactivity (56%). Profile 3 demonstrated the highest rate of tantrums/disruptive behaviors (20%).

Findings revealed distinct profiles of IQ and autism characteristics within a clinical sample of school-aged children referred for possible autism. Children with the highest scoring ADOS profile were older compared to other profiles. Higher and lower scoring ADOS profiles exhibited both lower and higher IQ scores. Descriptive analyses suggested that the frequency of autism diagnosis was notably higher in moderate and high-scoring ADOS profiles; however, emotional/behavioral problems were salient in only one low and one high-scoring ADOS profile. The findings suggest that higher-scoring ADOS profiles consistently demonstrated high autism diagnosis rates but varied across IQ and behavioral problems. These results have implications for interpreting these characteristics during clinical autism diagnosis.

The Cambridge Cognitive Examination for Down's Syndrome (CAMCOG-DS) was developed to assess cognitive functioning and dementia-related cognitive decline in people with Down's Syndrome (DS). It has been translated into different languages and is often used in international studies. Although adapted for people with intellectual disabilities (ID), many tasks involve verbal responses and instructions are presented orally. Therefore, the administration for people with severe language deficits can be challenging. The aim of this retrospective data analysis is to examine the influence of language ability and reasoning on CAMCOG-DS performance. Study 1 examined the relationship between CAMCOG-DS, picture naming, single word comprehension and reasoning in adults with DS. Study 2 replicates and broadens the findings in a sample of children and adults with DS.

Study 1 included 40 adults with DS between 18 and 51 years (M = 28.6, SD = 8.4). 25 had a mild and 15 a moderate ID. CAMCOG-DS, the short form of the Boston Naming test (BNT), a test for single word comprehension from the Werdenfelser Testbatterie (WTB) and the Colored Progressive Matrices (CPM) were administered. Study 2 included 38 participants between 8 and 59 years (23 children, M = 11.4; 15 adults; M = 31.3). 3 had a borderline, 23 a mild, and 12 a moderate ID. The same tasks as in Study 1 were applied, but the CPM was replaced by its successor, the Raven's 2.

In Study 1, participants with mild ID performed better in all tasks than those with moderate ID (p < .05). Moderate relationships were found between CAMCOG-DS total score and the language tasks (r = .56 and r = .46), which remained significant when level of ID was controlled for. There was also a moderate relationship between CAMCOG-DS and reasoning (r = .46). Regression analysis showed that BNT performance predicted CAMCOG-DS performance (R2 = .31). In Study 2, those with mild ID, compared to those with moderate ID, performed better in all tasks (p < .05), however, regarding the CAMCOG-DS and language tasks, this effect was larger in adults than in children. Adults performed better than children in the CAMCOG-DS and BNT (p < .05), but not in single word comprehension or reasoning. As in Study 1, moderate to large correlations were revealed between CAMCOG-DS and language tasks and between CAMCOG-DS and reasoning (r > .52), remaining significant when age and ID level were controlled for. Regression analysis showed that both naming and reasoning but not single word comprehension or age predicted CAMCOG-DS performance (R2 = .69), however, performance was best predicted by naming (R2 = .65).

Our results suggest that language ability and reasoning relate to CAMCOG-DS performance, which is best predicted by BNT picture naming. This should be considered in CAMCOG-DS interpretation, as the capabilities of patients with lesser language ability might be underestimated. Future developments of dementia assessments for people with ID should include more nonverbal tasks.

An effective support system for families with children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) consists of multiple methods of educational and therapeutic delivery. Such methods are adapted to meet a family’s needs and needs of the time, like the COVID-19 pandemic. Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) are established by schools to support success in academics for children with ASD. IEPs can vary depending on the district and accessibility, thus, the effective implementation and communication between this support system is important for its success. The current case study examines academic and therapeutic outcomes of an IEP implementation during hybrid learning of a child with ASD and their family.

Purposeful sampling identified a participant from a previous IRB approved study through the UNLV Educational Psychology program that interviewed parents on their remote learning experience. A qualitative case study was applied to further investigate student outcomes. Parent interview and the child’s progress report were coded and analyzed systematically. The identified family included correspondence from the mother (Lisa, 37) and her son (Noah, 9). Noah attended third grade at a Charter School and was diagnosed with ASD in 2019. His IEP included 80% in General Education (online) with Special Education assistance (in person; reading, writing, and mathematics) and Occupational (OT), Speech/Language (SLP), and Physical Therapy (PT) (hybrid).

Noah began hybrid learning in October 2020, with in-person learning two days a week and remote learning everyday for two to three hours each day. Progress report and interview were collected in April 2021 at the halfway point of his IEP implementation which described Noah’s current special education and therapy services goals/outcomes in March 2021. This included 11 goals that were observed and assessed in OT (2), PT(2), Reading (2), Writing (1), Math (2), and SLP (2). Noah progressed in 9 of 11 goals, with 1 being met and 8 classified as satisfactory by displaying some improvement in respective skills mid year. The remaining OT (2) goals showed no definitive conclusion. Lisa mentioned that lack of direct observation of particular skills and too many online classes to attend led to inconclusive outcomes. Lisa and Noah came across difficulties while engaging in OT online sessions encountering emotional stress when adjusting to the mode of delivery. Lisa expressed positive emotions when referring to the support system and described it as collaborative with adequate attention to multiple aspects of his development. She voiced understanding of her’s and other professionals’ role and the extent of their abilities in the context of the pandemic.

Of the 11 IEP goals, there was adequate progress for the child amid hybrid learning. The parent preferred that OT be delivered in person as certain procedures require direct contact and affected outcomes. Hybrid learning has allowed for parents to directly access their children’s endeavors and heighten communication with professionals. This suggests that maintenance of IEP standards can be satisfactory in a hybrid learning model with adequate monitoring from parents and treatment teams for children with ASD.

Attention plays a key role in auditory processing of information by shifting cognitive resources to focus on incoming stimuli (Riccio, Cohen, Garrison, & Smith, 2005). Mood symptoms are known to affect the efficiency with which this processing occurs, especially when consolidation of memory is required (Massey, Meares, Batchelor, & Bryant, 2015). Without proper focus on relevant task information, improper encoding occurs, resulting in negatively affected performances. This study examines how depression, anxiety, and stress moderate the relationship between auditory attention and verbal list-learning.

Archival data from 373 adults (Mage= 56.46, SD=17.75; Medu = 15.45, SD=2.2; 54% female; 74% white*) were collected at an outpatient clinic. Race was not available in a small percentage of cases included in analyses. Auditory attention was assessed via the Brief Test of Attention (BTA). Learning was assessed via the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-II) total T-Score (Trials 15). Mood was assessed via the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-42). A moderation analysis was conducted utilizing the DASS-42 as the moderator between the relationship of BTA and CVLT-II.

Block 1 of the hierarchical regression was significant in that BTA contributed significantly toward verbal learning on the CVLT-II (F(1, 378)=30.141, p =<.001 , AR2=.074). The standardized beta weight and p-value for BTA were (ß=.272, p<.001). When DASS variables were introduced into Block 2, the model remained significant F(3, 375)=4.227, p =.006 , AR2=.030). The DASS Anxiety subscale had significant beta weights in the model (ß=-.210 p=.004), whereas Depression and Stress were not significant (ß=.039, p=.563) and (ß=.021, p=.765), respectively.

The current study examined whether mood symptoms affect the relationship between auditory attention and verbal learning. Present results confirm previous research that auditory attention has a significant impact on verbal learning (Massey, Meares, Batchelor, & Bryant, 2015; Weiser, 2004). Building upon prior research, these results indicate that when accounting for auditory attention, clinicians should be aware of possible confounds of anxiety, which may artificially suppress auditory attention. In some circumstances, a differential diagnosis may require consideration that absent anxiety auditory attention may be within normal range. Continued assessment and evaluation regarding the impact of anxiety is crucial for neuropsychologists when examining performances on verbal learning.

Continuous performance tests (CPT) are often considered the gold standard for the diagnosis attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), particularly when parent and teacher rating scales are inconclusive. Prior work has indicated that CPT can also help differentiate between ADHD subtypes. However, the ability of CPT to differentiate ADHD subtype has not been examined among youth with comorbid ADHD and anxiety (ADHD+A). This is particularly concerning as the extant literature suggests that anxiety symptoms may exacerbate deficits associated with ADHD (e.g.. , working memory, attention) and attenuate others (e.g., inhibition); thus, anxiety may influence expected patterns on the CPT. This study therefore seeks to examine the role of ADHD subtype on the relationship between ADHD+A and performance on a CPT among youth with ADHD+A.

Participants included 54 children ranging from 6 to 20 years old (Mage=11.83, 54% female) who were diagnosed with ADHD+A via neuropsychological evaluation. In terms of ADHD subtype, 51.9% (n=28) were diagnosed with ADHD combined or ADHD primarily hyperactive and 48.1% (n=26) were diagnosed with ADHD primarily inattentive. Approximately 46.30% (N=25) of participants were medication naive. Analyses were conducted using data from the Conners Kiddie Continuous Performance Test -Second Edition (KCPT-2), Conners Continuous Performance - Second Edition (CPT-2) and the Conners Continuous Performance - Third Edition (CPT-3), which are part of the same family of performance-based attention measures. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine performance differences in aspects of attention (e.g., inattentiveness, sustained attention) and hyperactivity (e.g., impulsivity, inhibition).

ADHD subtype was not significantly related to measures of inattentiveness. This includes the number of targets missed (omissions; (t(39)=-.532, p=.59)) and variability in response time (variability; (t(39)=-0.30, p=.77)). In terms of sustained attention, ADHD subtype was not related to variability in response speed across blocks (Hit SEBC/HRT Block Change; (t(39)=-0.26, p=.79)). Importantly, these results were consistent regardless of ADHD medication status. ADHD subtype was also not significantly related to impulsivity. This includes responses to nontargets (commissions; (t(39)=-1.05, p=.30)), random or anticipatory responding (perseverations; (t(39)=-0.19, p=.85)), and mean response speed of correct responses (HR; (t(39)=-0.72, p=.48)).

The extant literature suggests that CPT can help clinicians differentiate between ADHD subtypes. However, the results of this study indicate that there are no performance differences on the CPT among youth with comorbid ADHD and anxiety. There are several limitations to consider. First, this study had a relatively small sample size, which also limited the ability to examine ADHD primarily hyperactive/impulsive as a distinct subtype. Additionally, this study did not examine the effect of individual anxiety disorders (i.e., generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobias). Finally, these findings may not generalize to other standardized measures of attention or more ecologically valid measures. Despite these limitations, this study is an important step in understanding the relationship between ADHD+A and performance on attention measures. Clinicians should be cautious in using results from CPT to distinguish between ADHD subtype among children with comorbid anxiety.

Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) is an attentional disorder characterized by excessive daydreaming, reduced alertness, slowed motor behavior, and mental fogginess. The purpose of the present study was to examine potential executive functioning group differences between children with high SCT symptoms versus those with low SCT symptoms. It was hypothesized that children with high SCT symptoms would have greater executive functioning deficits than children with low SCT symptoms, as reported by their teachers.

There were 32 children in this study, between the ages of 6 to 13 (M = 8.94; SD = 1.97). To measure the level of SCT symptomology, an average rating on four items from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Items 13, 17, 80, 102) and an average rating from five items from the Teacher's Report Form (TRF; Items 13, 17, 60, 80, 102) were acquired and averaged to produce a combined measure of SCT. The present study had fair to good reliability for CBCL and TRF with Cronbach alpha values of .71 and .82 respectively. Eighteen participants had SCT scores above the Garner et al. (2010) cutoff criteria for the CBCL (SCT over 0.67) or the TRF (SCT over 0.75) which placed them in the high SCT group. The 13 participants who did not meet criteria for high SCT were considered the low SCT group. To measure executive function, Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) teacher ratings were used. A general linear model multivariate analysis was conducted on each measure of the BRIEF teacher reports with ADHD-Inattentive (ADHD-IN) and Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) scores as covariates.

There were significant group differences between the BRIEF Teacher Global Executive Composite scores of the high SCT group (M = 60.81, SD = 7.78) versus the low SCT group (M = 50.31, SD = 6.87), F(1, 30) = 11.73, p < .001, np2 = .59. The high SCT group scored significantly higher than the low SCT group on the Initiate (p < .001), Working Memory (p < .001), Plan/Organize (p < .001), Monitor (p < .01), and Organization of Materials (p < .05) subscales. These findings indicate that the children in the high SCT group had greater executive functioning difficulties overall than the low SCT group.

Children with high SCT symptoms demonstrated greater executive functioning deficits than children with low SCT symptoms regarding metacognition but not behavioral regulation. This means that children with SCT likely struggle more with initiating tasks, planning, organization, memory, and monitoring their thinking and behaviors than children without SCT. These skills are important for learning, which may at least partially help explain why children with SCT experience problems in school.

Accumulating evidence from case-control and population studies suggests attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) confers a 2- to 5-fold risk of all-cause dementia later in life. Here, we investigate vascular burden as a potential mediator of this relationship, because vascular integrity is well known to be compromised in ADHD (due to chronic obesity, diabetes, and hypertension) and is also a robust risk factor for neurodegeneration (due to reduced cerebral blood flow). We use brain white matter hyperintensities (WMH) as a measure of vascular burden.

Thirty-nine adults aged 48-81 years with clinical ADHD, and 37 matched controls, completed neuropsychological testing and 1.5 T structural neuroimaging. None had stroke. Cognitive tests were demographically-adjusted to Z scores using regression-based norms generated from the control group, and averaged across tests within domains of short- and long-term verbal memory (forward digit span, California Verbal Learning Test, Logical Memory), visual memory (Visual Recognition, Rey Complex Figure), processing speed (coding, trails A, Stroop word-reading and color-naming), language (Boston Naming Test, semantic fluency), visuoconstruction (clock drawing, Rey Complex Figure copy), and executive function (backward digit span, trails B, phonemic fluency, Stroop inhibition, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test). Total WMH volumes (i.e., combined periventricular and deep) within subcortical, temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital regions were individually divided by regional volumes to produce a proportion of each region representing WMH, then log-transformed to correct for skew. Age-corrected linear regression quantified total effects of ADHD on cognition; when these were significant, mediation models quantified the direct effects of ADHD on WMH volumes and the direct effect of WMH volumes on cognition. Sobel’s test estimated indirect effects of ADHD on cognition via WMH.

Group had a significant total effect on Processing Speed (ß=-1.154, p<.001) and on Executive Functioning (ß=-0.587, p=.004), where ADHD participants had lower composite scores (M=-1.10, SD=1.76 and M=-0.54, SD=1.14 respectively) than controls (M=0.02, SD=0.74; M=0.00, SD=0.49). Only frontal-lobe WMH had direct effects on Processing Speed (ß=-0.315, p=.012) and Executive Functioning (ß=-0.273, p<.001). The direct effect of ADHD on frontal WMH was significant (ß=-0.734, p=.016), and Sobel’s tests supported an indirect effect of ADHD on Executive Functioning (z=2.079, p=.038) but not Processing Speed (z=1.785, p=.074) via WMH. Because the effect of ADHD on WMH was negative (i.e., fewer WMH in ADHD) despite worse cognition than controls, we tested the a posteriori hypothesis that WMH burden may be relatively more deleterious for ADHD than controls. We found considerably stronger negative correlations between total WMH volumes and Processing Speed (r=-.423, p=.009) and Executive Functioning (r=-.528, p<.001) in the ADHD group than in controls (r=-.231, p=.175 and r=-.162, p=.346, respectively), even though total whole-brain proportion of WMH (M=0.15%, SD=0.27; Mann-Whitney l/=430.0, p=.002) and frontal-lobe proportion of WMH volumes (M=0.33%, SD=0.51; Mann-Whitney U=464.0, p=.007) were lower in ADHD than in controls (M=0.29%, SD=0.42 and M=0.66%, SD=0.88, respectively).

WMH burden contributes significantly to the relationship between ADHD and cognition, but ADHD remains an independent contributor to worse processing speed and executive functioning in older adults. Vascular burden may have relatively more deleterious effects on cognition in ADHD, potentially due to decades of accumulated allostatic load, whereas healthy controls can accumulate greater amounts of WMH before cognition is impacted.

Several studies have found a bilingualism advantage on executive functioning tasks like cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, switching, and working memory in typically developing populations. (Grote et al., 2015, Foy & Mann, 2014). However, some studies have found deficits in inhibitory control and switching for bilingual individuals with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) compared to monolingual individuals and control groups (Bialystok et al., 2017, Mor et al., 2015). They suggest that this disadvantage is due to the burden of managing two language systems which perpetuates the executive dysfunction seen in ADHD. The current study aims to examine if there is a bilingualism advantage in other aspects of executive function, including inhibitory control, planning, problem solving, switching, and working memory among children and adults diagnosed with ADHD.

The medical records of 170 patients evaluated in an outpatient neuropsychology clinic from 20182022 were reviewed. Sixty participants diagnosed with ADHD, between the ages of 6 and 46 (61.67% male), comprised the final sample. Forty-one were monolingual and 19 were bilingual or multilingual. Language status was based upon patient or parental report. Outcomes on various direct and indirect measures of executive function were examined.

Linear regression models, adjusting for age and sex, revealed a significant bilingual advantage on the following measures: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Fifth Edition (WISC-V) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Digit Span Backwards and Digit Span Sequencing, WISC-V Picture Span, and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, 2nd Edition (BRIEF-2) Parent-Report Emotion Regulation Index (ERI). There were no significant differences in scores between monolinguals and bilinguals on the following measures: Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Color-Word Interference Inhibition versus Combined Naming Contrast Score and Inhibition/Switching versus Inhibition Contrast Score, D-KEFS Trail Making Number-Letter Switching versus Combined Number Sequencing and Letter Sequencing Contrast Score, A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment, 2nd Edition (NEPSY-2) Naming versus Inhibition Contrast Score and Switching versus Inhibition Contrast Score, Wisconsin Card Sort Task Learning to Learn Index, BRIEF-2 Parent-rated Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI), Cognitive Regulation Index(CRI), and Global Executive Composite(GEC), BRIEF-2 Self-rated BRI, ERI, CRI, and GEC, or BRIEF Adult Version BRI, Metacognitive Index, and GEC.

Bilingual status is associated with stronger auditory and visual working memory among people with ADHD, but not with stronger inhibitory control, switching, planning, or problem solving skills. At the same time, there were no significant differences between monolingual and bilingual ADHD patients on BRIEF parent- or self-rated behavioral or cognitive dysregulation. Our results suggest that bilingualism may confer an advantage in some aspects of executive function among a population with weak attention and executive function skills more broadly. Furthermore, we did not find any type of disadvantage for those who are bilingual. Future studies should examine whether lower parental ratings of emotion dysregulation among ADHD patients who are bilingual are due to bilingual children’s better ability to adapt to different situations or cultural differences in parenting practices.