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6046 results in European language and linguistics

Page 77 of 303

  • IX - Forms of Address in Contemporary Macedonian Language

  • from A - PRAGMATICS OF DISCOURSE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 89-112

  • Summary

    Today, the Macedonian language is developing spontaneously. It changes in accordance with the habits of the interpersonal communication as the number of authors and poets who write original works increases. However, it should be emphasized that this hastened development is under constant linguistic and ethnic pressure imposed by the Albanians. After the announcement of independence in 1991, the Macedonian population was indeed more numerous, however, it represented just over 64% of the population in the republic. The Macedonian language was also the main language in the state, liberating itself, at least legally, from Serbian domination.

    A large part of the population – according to some estimates, from 25 to 30% with an increasing trend – are Albanians, of whom the majority are Muslims, a small number includes Catholics, however both these religious groups are characterized by a fast population growth and increase of political aspiration. Even in the early phases of Macedonian's road to independence, unsatisfied by their current situation, Macedonian Albanians asked for changes especially concerning the Albanian language, i.e. its agreement with the Macedonian language.

    The Framework Agreement [Рамковен договор] was signed after the Albanian rebellion on 13 August 2001. Besides concerning important political questions, the Treaty also refers to the Albanian language in Macedonia, which gained the status of an official language in the Parliament, the State Administration and municipalities where the number of the Albanian population was over 20%.

    Basic Forms of Address in the Macedonian Language

    During the past several years, the Macedonian language changed and the literary standard was also modified and crystalized. Forms and manners of establishing linguistic contact between interlocutors evolved exponentially. Today, as the distance in interpersonal communication increases, and hence new forms appear and old ones reappear, which – as it seemed during the Yugoslavian communist era – irretrievably disappeared. Such forms of address include господин // госпоѓа (Mister // Madam) or official phrases used in official meetings including дами и господа (ladies and gentlemen) or politically colored phrases including другари // другарки (comrades).

  • V - The Macedonian Language versus other Languages in Macedonia

  • from A - PRAGMATICS OF DISCOURSE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 56-61

  • Summary

    The majority of the Republic of Macedonia's – a state in the South Eastern region of the European continent – population speaks the Macedonian language (65%), recognized as an official language. In addition, the Albanian language is used by 25% of the population as well as the Turkish and Serbian languages and other languages. Orthodox Christianity is the predominant religion in the Republic (64% of the population), but Muslims are also an important part comprising ¼ of the society (more than 500,000). This number also includes Orthodox Albanians, of whom the majority are concentrated in the region of Dolna, Mala and Golema Reka (Lower, Small and Big River) in 17 villages. The people who live there are known as Mijaks (Macedonian: Мијаци, Mijaci), Mijacs – Orthodox or Muslim Macedonians whose mother tongue is the Albanian language and they are Orthodox Christians. A portion of these ethnic Macedonians are referred to as Shkreti.

    In the family of Slavic languages, the Macedonian language, together with the Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian and Slovenian languages, belong to the South Slavic language group. Today, it is the official language of Macedonia, and yet, in accordance with the constitutional amendments and with the Framework Agreement signed in Ohrid in 2001 t. 6.5 and 6.6:

    Any other language spoken by at least 20% of the population is also an official language in terms of local government, in municipalities where a certain community comprises at least 20% of the population of the municipality, the language of that community will be used as an official language in addition to Macedonian.

    It is estimated that the Macedonian language is spoken by 2 to 2.5 million people, including the Macedonian diaspora

    The legal status of languages in Macedonia, the Macedonian language, as an official language, as well as other languages, other than Macedonian, was established by Amendment V of the Constitution of Republic of Macedonia:

  • VI - Games in Text in Расказ за шоа како се иишуваат раскази (Story about How Stories Are Written) by Vlada Urošević

  • from B - LANGUAGE IN THE DISCOURSE: MACEDONIAN – POLISH
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 212-216

  • Summary

    The Macedonian Расказ за шоа како се иишуваат раскази (Story about How Stories Are Written) by Vlada Urošević should be listed in the world stream of autothematic and autocreative literature. The story, essentially, meets the principles of this writing strategy, and not just from that point of view but also from other aspects such as, for example: intertextual building and polyphonic narrative in all its narrative varieties and types of foreign speech. It should be stressed that it is very difficult to find so typical (for the abovementioned stream) work in Polish, and even in European literature. But some of the texts by K. Izhikovski, S. Vitkjevich, W. Gombrowicz, L. Buchkovski, K. Brandis and L. Gomulicki are highly representative of this narrative strategy.

    Autothematism is a narrative strategy characteristic for the author of a literary work and consists of the fact that the text contains statements of the author, the narrator, the character (the description and other linguistic resources such as verbs of speaking – verba dicendi – can also fulfill this function), hence autocreativity becomes clearly visible in the structure of the text and has appropriate language indicators. There is no need of a particular analytic procedure for this to be revealed. A. Gide is considered to be a constructor and a representative of that stream and his works include: The Counterfeiters (Smiths of Fake Money) and Swamp. А. Gide attempted to fix similarities and analogies between the literary idea of the character and the work in which she // he has a part to play. The protagonist of Swamp writes a book involving problematic that, essentially, approaches the problematic of the work.

    Considered from the aspect of narrative structures description, this issue can be treated within the literary metatext. Antecedents of methodology for writing novels thus used should be sought in the new French novel and in the American metafictional novel, but terms such as autothematism as well as autothematic works, at the end of the XIX and the beginning of the XX century, were introduced in the literary practice by the Polish researcher and critic Artur Sandauer with his three works:

  • III - Functions of the Expression проклет да бидам (I'll be damned) in the novel The Great Water by Zhivko Chingo

  • from B - LANGUAGE IN THE DISCOURSE: MACEDONIAN – POLISH
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 177-197

  • Summary

    “Foreign Speach” in the Novel The Great Water by Zhivko Chingo

    The problem with “foreign speech” in this text structure, and especially in a narrative text, primarily relates to the use of foreign words from foreign languages. But not only that. “Foreign speech” is also “imported speech” where the replica content is preserved and is grammatically integrated in the narrator's text. “Foreign speech” may be “paraphrased speech” in which none of the elements of the speech act itself are preserved except for their content. However, those speeches can be mixed and representatives of foreign speech may equally exist. These are usually graphically emphasized by quotation marks in the narrative text. However, that does not apply to foreign words. As quotes from a foreign language code, they are not enclosed in quotation marks and in this case, the hallmark of the “foreign word” is exclusively, its foreign linguistic form or foreign pronunciation.

    In a literal sense, “foreign speech” is a word that originates from another, nonnative language, for example, English, French, Russian, etc. However, “foreign speech” is not just a foreign word. A text written in a native language but from another author can have a role of foreign speech. It can be a separate word or an entire construction spoken by a character in a novel, by the author or the narrator. An example of “foreign speech,” in its widest sense, also includes such constructions that originate from another plain of the text, which is distinguished from the main text, from the rest of the style, from the language region, from the other personal manner of expression and at the end, from another language, completely different from the native one – that is, a foreign language. The problem of the foreign in contrast to the native narration refers to the relation: the author's text (original): translation text, narrator's expression: character's expression with all variations of the retold text as foreign in the language of the raconteur (author or narrator). And, essentially, they are the intertextual metatextual and metalinguistic relations.

  • II - На тие зборои… (On those words…) – Place and Function of Prepositions in Folk Tales by Marko K. Cepenkov

  • from C - FOLKLORE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 239-249

  • Summary

    The preposition together with language elements accompanying it – the verb that substantively specifies the noun, which, in turn, dominates the preposition, in accordance with classical theory of word group, can, usually acting before the noun (only in some languages after it) fulfill grammatical or actual (spatial etc.) function.

  • •In current researches of preposition's behavior in language, attention is paid to their semantic function, with acceptance or negation of Jerzy Kuryłowicz's well-known thesis that the preposition is the main sub-morpheme of case.

    • Different semantic criteria primarily related to object localization or localization of events in place and time, are used for classification and determination of prepositions’ actual (semantic) functions. In addition, different prepositions can express causative, purposeful meanings or can be just indicators of temporal and spatial relations.

    By accepting, primarily, the semantic criteria, more or less correct or sometimes only approximate classifications of all possible semantic relations and meanings of prepositions (prepositional expression) are determined.

    In addition, preposition functions are often considered exclusively in the range of their closest contextual connections, but never in broader sense than their function of connecting the verb with the preposition and the noun or just the preposition with the noun. Such manner of analysis is sometimes prone to formulating insufficiently motivated theses on the semantic independence of prepositions. Thereto, all possible semantic fillings used in poetic language are excluded.

    In elaborating the problem concerning prepositions, several criteria which serve to determine the said meanings of prepositions dominate. The type of prepositional construction meaning is decided by:

  • •Nominal context (type of connection with the noun),

  • •Verbal context (type of connection of the preposition with the verb),

  • •Both contexts together,

  • •Standpoint according to which, prepositions have semantic independence.

    • Most importantly, the preposition is placed in a sentence and together with independent (meaningful) expressions takes part in its construction. Accordingly, prepositions, similarly to case suffixes, take part in determination and establishment of the relations between expressions, parts of the sentence. However, majority of prepositions do not determine spatial and other relations existing in the real world totally unambiguously since a given relation can be built from several deferent prepositions or their combination.

  • VII - The Macedonian Language and the Framework Agreement (Рамковен договор)

  • from A - PRAGMATICS OF DISCOURSE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 64-65

  • Summary

    Since independence in 1991, the Macedonian language has essentially been the sole official language of the Republic of Macedonia, overthrowing, at least constitutionally, the predominance of the Serbian language. A large part of Macedonia's inhabitants, according to some estimates 20% to 40% with a tendency for growth, is composed of Albanians who have so far had the status of a nationality. The majority of them are Muslims, and the minority are Catholics, however, these religious groups are characterized by a very fast growing birthrate with ever increasing political aspirations. Since the very beginning of Macedonian independence, unsatisfied by their status, the Macedonian Albanians have demanded changes, especially regarding matters concerning the Albanian language and its equality with the Macedonian language.

    In the fall of 1998, parliamentary elections were held in Macedonia and the coalition of VMRO-DPMNE56 and the Democratic alternative won the elections. The coalition was then broadened by the Democratic Party of the Albanians (DPA). When the Albanian party entered the government as part of the coalition, it's politics were moderate and it wanted to solve all Macedonian – Albanian conflicts by means of negotiations and agreements. Such politics were not appealing to all Albanians. Some considered that the Party's leader, Arbën Xhaferi, did not care about the Albanian minority but realized his own private interests. The Albanian group, increasing in numbers, in Macedonia radicalized their demands.

    At the beginning of 2001, units of the UÇK57 with approximately 5 thousand fighters, started armed actions against police stations of the Macedonian police, and against military units and communication networks for destruction of hydro-energetic system and the complete disorganization of life in the Republic of Macedonia, while the Macedonian population in those territories with majority of Albanians, was forced to leave their homes.

    There were casualties on both sides, and foreign intervention was needed to put an end to the armed conflict – via pressure and mediation from the European Union and NATO.

    From the 15 to the 25 June 2001, negotiations were opened for granting Albanians a more extensive autonomy, however, they ended without any results.

  • II - The Language of National and Cultural Discourses

  • from A - PRAGMATICS OF DISCOURSE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 18-22

  • Summary

    The essence of creating national and cultural identity is comprised within discourses led on different levels of societal communication. This process of creation or reconstruction of cultural or national identity functions as social public discourse, taking part in all forms of social life and all discursive formations – cultural, political, cognitive, medial etc.

    After the breakup of Yugoslavia, the countries that thus far were under the rule of a totalitarian regime faced bigger political, social and economic changes and turmoil. During this transition period, Macedonia, as well as Serbia and Montenegro, maintained EU candidate status since 2006, while Croatia became a member state in 2013. These Balkan and European changes led to an actualization and a modernization of the language (the code) of national and cultural discourses of the Balkan states (including Macedonia), for the purpose of forming their own identity or reconstruction of their current identity, partially by confronting it with similar discourses of their neighbors, building democratic values and integrating with the European Union.

    The following questions relate to this:

    Is the Language image of Macedonian and the Balkans created by Europe, or by the Balkan countries themselves?

    How long will the Balkans remain a mystery for their European neighbors? The cultural heterogeneity of the region seems to be the most important, but not the only reason for it this state of affairs.

    In what language were the language images of Macedonia created, and what language will they be created in – which ones of those were usual and how will this influence Balkan conflicts and misunderstandings?

    Discourses – Macedonian, Balkan and European Discourses – Definitions and Language Determinations

    National myths are transformed in political myths through discursive procedures and thus fulfill a very important role in the creation of the identities of certain Balkan states. Balkan and Macedonian national discourses appear both on a local (regional) and state (national) level as well as on a bilateral level (Macedonian – Bulgarian, Serbian – Croatian, Macedonian – Greek discourse) and, by inclusion of Turkey, Russia and the USA, on a multilateral (European and international) level.

  • VII - Instances of Deconstructivism in Zhivko Chingo's Short Story Paskvelija

  • from B - LANGUAGE IN THE DISCOURSE: MACEDONIAN – POLISH
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 217-223

  • Summary

    Researches concerning the newest Macedonian literature consider postmodern metatextuality to its most important mark. Danilo Kocevski – literary critic and essayist wrote:

    We arrive at the most important properties of the newest prose = metatextuality and mannerism.

    It also points to its metaliterary basis and the creation of stories about the stories, the use of Bakhtin's “foreign speech,” text in text, construction of narrative structures considering authentic persons beyond the fabula (foreign speech) and elements of irony and grotesque. This type of text is dominated by: fragmentation, minimization, incorporation of metatextual passages, creation of intertextual relations, usage of all levels and perspectives of the expression and invitation for the reader to take part in the creation of the text. Furthermore, in accordance with the theory of deconstruction, a text cannot have only one determined meaning, and the text's meaning is created during each reading. All these properties of postmodern and deconstruction literature are also characteristic of contemporary tendencies in most recent Macedonian prose.

    Indeed, there is a very important difference between traditional treatment of literary text, in which the author tends to achieve an illusion of reality and that which literary canons related to the notion of “mimesis” impose on him, and the emergence of postmodern metatextuality, typical of most recent Macedonian literature. The author doesn't only show demonstrably that he is not interested in reality (as stylistic means), but rather than in creation of illusion of that reality, he is interested in its deconstruction. Moreover, deconstruction, even reality break-down and deformation of the literary image of the world, function in the name of language and utilization of its universal abilities for creation of text. Aspiration towards fictional deconstruction of reality or towards true reconstruction of the real world, which has already been deconstructed by deliberate action of every person (creator) with the assumption that the only available tool for recognition of reality is the text, led to partial elimination or complete lack of logical (causal) relations between individual sections of text content.

  • VIII - Variance in Тranslation (Ivo Andrić: На Дрини ћуприја, Мостот на Дрина, Most na Drinie, The Bridge on the Drina)

  • from B - LANGUAGE IN THE DISCOURSE: MACEDONIAN – POLISH
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 224-230

  • Summary

    The essence of translation theory can – generally – be treated as establishment or clarification of different relations between the language of the original and the language of the translation. Accordingly, language variance is related to the linguistic units which are formally different but function identically or, in turn, there is a different phonological, morphological, sintactic, phraseological and textual realization of one and the same unite.

    Two analysis approaches derived from two types of variance can be distinguished in relation to the variance in translation theory. The first, interlinguistic – outside of the language, occurs within the borders of one language, and the second refers to the relations between the language of the original, source text, for example English, and the other languages in which the text is being translated, e.e. Polish or Macedonian. The immanent properties in theory of translation apply to the first approach, as well as the second one, and they can be accompanied by the phenomena of equivalence and adequacy.

    The phenomenon of equivalence in the theory of translation was observed by E. Nida, who devived equivalence to formal and functional equivalence. Functional equivalence (or dynamic equivalence) conveys the main idea expressed in the source text. If necessary, that goal can be achieved at the expense of the literality of the original (what we have in the original as a form, transferred by another form in literal sense), as well as the word order in the sentence or the grammatical form of the source text. According to the formal equivalence, the text of the original and the translation are treated literally, “word for word” (verbum pro verbum).

    The difference between the variance of the translation and the equivalence – although the first and second appear at all levels of the original language (OL) and the translation (LT), yet, their scope is different: the first (variance) refers to, to several degrees, different equivalent (grammatical, lexical, stylistic) language versions of the translation. In case of the second, equivalence only basically connects the two languages – the language of the original and the language of the translation – and, yet, the connection is present on all language structure levels.

  • I - Some Causative Verbs in the Macedonian and Polish Languages

  • from B - LANGUAGE IN THE DISCOURSE: MACEDONIAN – POLISH
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 115-163

  • Summary

    In Słownik terminologii językoznawczej (Dictionary of Linguistic Terminology) edited by Z. Gołąb, A. Heinz and K. Polański, the term causativum is defined as follows:

    One of the so-called kinds or types of the action, the word-forming category of transitive verbs denotes the fact that a subject of a verb causes (lat. causare ‘cause’) completion of a given action or acceptance of a given standpoint or state by its object. Slavic languages include only traces of this category of verbs, as are: Pol. pić (Mак. пие, Eng. drink) as opposed to poić (Mak. му дава некој // некому да пие, Eng. to give drink to), mrzeć (Mак. умре, Eng. die) as opposed to morzyć (Mак. доведе некого да умре // умира, Eng. causes someone to die).

    A similar definition can be found in the Encyklopedia językoznawstwa ogólnego, however, the authors have added that:

    (…) in the Polish language as well as in other Slavic languages or the newer Indo-European languages there are only remnants of this word-forming category. However, in Pre-Indo-European languages, this category belonged to productive formations created from basic verbs by means of vocal alteration of the basic vowel and the suffixes *-ejo-// *-ī- // *(-j-).

    Yet, the most suitable definition of causation can be found in Semantics by J. Lyons, who connects causation to the hypothesis on lexical distribution (component analysis). According to the author, valency as well as verb semantics, for example, убива (kills), should be described by its dependence on the verb's non-transitive construction умира (dies) (i.e. почнува да не живее (begins not to live)) from the abstract verb предизвикува (cause). By replacing the complex predicated (meaning почнува да не живее (begins not to live) with the verb умира (dies)), concurrently, we replace the construction ‘X causes Y to die’ with the construction ‘X causes – Y dies’ in which ‘causes – dies’ is lexicalizes as ‘kills’.

  • III - King Marko in the Folk Tales by Marko K. Cepenkov – A Cognitive Definition

  • from C - FOLKLORE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 250-258

  • Summary

    The discussion on the issue of stereotypes and stereotypization in different kinds of text – primarily in folk but also in poetic and other types of texts – (in linguistic textology) has begun only recently.

    The terms stereotypes, prototypes, profiling, linguistic picture of the world enter the field of linguistics as related to the development of text theory and cognitive semantics in the last 50 years. This issue is very wide and of interest to authors who represent the field of text grammar that make use of folk material and even touches upon cognitivism, primarily prototypes and idealized cognitive gestalts by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson as well as the reconstruction of the linguistic piscture of the world by Jerzy Bartmiński and Ryszard Tokarski.

    For a complete profile and a construction of the cognitive definition of Krale (King) Marko, the number of contexts (contextual meaning) in which this character appears, should be taken into consideration.

    Only information contained in Cepenkov's folk stories have been used for a description of the linguistic picture of King Marko.

    Reconstruction of the linguistic picture of Marko Krale in folk literature is very attractive and enticing. However, for our purposes, a limitation will be applied, to include only Cepenkov's folk stories.

    According to Macedonian folklore researchers and some historians, King Marko (Marko Krale, Krale Marko, Krali Marko, Marko Kraljevic…) is an authentic person for whom there is scant historical data.

    He was born around 1334 // 1335 as a son of Vukashin. After Vukashin's death (1371), King Marko took ruled in Western Macedonia.

    As a vassal of Sultan Bayazid I, he died in the Battle of Rovine in 1395 while fighting for the Ottomans against Mircea the Elder. He is a historical figure who became a hero, and is described in the cycle about Marko Krale, one of the richest and most beautiful collections of folk epic stories of the Southern Slavic people. A large number of songs dedicated to him belong to Serbian folk literature, but Bulgarian folk epics also treat him as a folk hero.

  • K. Penushliski in his book Marko Krale – Legend and Reality states:

  • VI - In the Circle of Politics and Linguistics

  • from A - PRAGMATICS OF DISCOURSE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 62-63

  • Summary

    At the dawn of Macedonia in the 20th century, language politics had a very important role to play. The Macedonian language was to be recognized, and a Macedonian standard was to be developed and disseminated in all spheres of life. This task was entrusted to those people who were politically active at the time, and were also specialists in the field of literature and linguistics. Language commissions led by social activists, writers and linguists, were appointed to work on the codification of the Macedonian alphabet. After fierce discussions, a Macedonian alphabet was established and the central Macedonian dialects were chosen as the basis for the standard language.

    The language policy of the country played a great role here, especially with regards to the codification of the Macedonian alphabet, which – in accordance with the will of its authors – should have increased the difference between the Macedonian and the Bulgarian languages, and decrease the differences between the Macedonian and the Serbian languages. The Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is closer to the Russian alphabet, but the Macedonian Cyrillic alphabet is under significant Serbian influence. The Bulgarian alphabet includes letters to represent, for example, the half voiced sounds – in the Old Slavic language; these sounds were reproduced and were represented with the corresponding letters: the front and back yer – were eliminated from the phonological system and the Macedonian alphabet. In the Orthography of 1945, the half voiced sound was granted a graphic representation in the form of an apostrophe. Љ, њ, џ were introduced in the Macedonian alphabet in accordance with the Serbian letters, as well as the Latin ј, after Vuk Karadžić.

    After World War II, the Macedonian language was recognized as an official language of the newly formed Republic of Macedonia, as part of the Yugoslav Federation. Although the Macedonian language was recognized as an official language of the Republic, in practice, the role of a dominant language – higher ranking, from the perspective of prestige and functions – was performed by the Serbo-Croatian language. Some researchers, including H. Voss,55 are on the opinion that the Serbo-Croatian language influenced the Macedonian standard so strongly, that the larger part of the population in Greek Macedonia, stopped feeling their mother tongue, leading to a quick Hellenization of this population.

  • I - Basic Tendencies in the Linguistics of Discourse

  • from A - PRAGMATICS OF DISCOURSE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 13-17

  • Summary

    The notion of discourse in humanities and social sciences, as well as in linguistics, is, among all else, due to necessity, must to include a communication element in its description of the functioning of language. This prompted the beginning of involving a description of statements and texts from general communication perspective in research. When it comes to the discourse of neo-liberalism, more often than not, we come across the use of the term with its popular meaning in informal use by the media and some social sciences, in which case, this discourse refers not only to those ways of speaking, as adopted by neoliberal thinkers or politicians, but also to the concepts and ideas they propagate, and studies of neoliberal discourse, in general, may not include and are not concerned with, the use of language.

    The view for common determinants of both types of descriptions – theoretical and empirical – has begun to dominate linguistics at a relatively late date. The traditional differentiation between system (langue, competence) and use (parole, performance) represents dynamic network connections between authentic language information and data (computer databases and information corps), and their conditionality in the communication processes – the discourse. “Interdisciplinarity,” the empirical orientation and social conditionality of language use, reinforces the processing of discourse interactive character as a set of instructions or strategies used in the communication game in order to achieve, primarily, understanding.

    Ambiguity of the term discourse, also posed difficulties in the methodology of linguistic description which arises mainly from the absence of an appropriate method according to which, texts, thanks to special additional indicators, may prescribe or incorporate not only grammatical and semantic information but also cultural, political, and societal tradition. Within this framework, besides the structural methods (linguistic discourse analysis), cognitive discipline and related disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, logic, semiotics (critical discourse analysis), a special place belongs to corpus linguistics as a discipline that can greatly modify the methodology for text analysis and discourse as the basis of linguistic data that integrate these, so far, divided research fields.

  • IV - Linguistic Stereotypes in Polish and Macedonian Folk Texts by Oskar Kolberg and Marko K. Cepenkov

  • from C - FOLKLORE
  • Maciej Kawka, Jagiellonian University, Krakow
  • Book:
    Macedonian Discourses
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    12 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 January 2016, pp 259-263

  • Summary

    The emergence of stereotypes and stereotypization in different types of texts (primarily in folklore, but also in poetic and other types of texts) has been discussed in linguistics in our times.

    The terms STEREOTYPE, PROTOTYPE, PROFILING entered linguistics when related to the development of grammar, text and cognitive semantics – over the course of the last 20 – 30 years.

    The problem is very wide and of interest to authors who represent the theory of text using folklore material and achievements of cognitivism, primarily the concept of prototype by Eleonora Rosh and the reconstruction of the linguistic world view.

    The functioning of stereotypes and stereotypisation in natural languages is not new since it is very frequently discussed in everyday communication. Thus, most often we speak about stereotypes of peoples, nations, ethnical groups, citizens of certain regions, cities and the like. For example, Warszawianin (Varsovian) – is a man who doesn't work much, but who will always manage, be a braggart and a capable man…, Krakowianin (– from Cracov) – is a brave, merry, stingy, conservative and prideful man. In the stereotype of a Polish man there are three basic features: patriotism, bravery and hospitality. A French man is elegant and delicate for the Polish people. A Polish man is pathetic for the Czechs, and a nationalist for the German people. The German is a foreigner with whom the Polish cannot communicate – a mute man.

    In general, given the language of human behaviuor, as a means of communication, stereotypes are negatively valuated as dangerous for normal understanding between people. However, it is clear for linguists that stereotypes are consistant elements of the language related to its essence. Therefore, stereotypisation does not only concern people and nations but also includes societal situations, human behavior, elements of the closest human surroundings, objects of nature, animals and plants, and elements of space, related to the categorisation of reality (scientific and common). The effect of the first is produced by the notions, and stereotypes are a result of the second. Another important mark of this distinction is the fact that notions are dominated by an intellectual element, and stereotypes are dominated by an emotional element.

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