Europe of the nineteenth century was a continent wracked by numerous wars, revolutions, and other political upheavals. From the continent-wide Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) in the aftermath of the French Revolution, to the countless battles and skirmishes that took place on local or regional scales, the nineteenth century was a period not only of political and social upheaval, but also one of industrialization, increased urbanization, and cross-cultural exchange. It was during this century that earlier ideas of nation were cemented, helped in no small part by, and in many cases responsible for, the many conflicts that played out across the continent. While ideas of national or ethnic difference were by no means novel, they were consolidated during this century.