Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
  • Cited by 8
Publisher:
Cambridge University Press
Online publication date:
September 2017
Print publication year:
2017
Online ISBN:
9781316493168

Book description

In October 1967, early in the Nigerian Civil War, government troops entered Asaba in pursuit of the retreating Biafran army, slaughtering thousands of civilians and leaving the town in ruins. News of the atrocity was suppressed by the Nigerian government, with the complicity of Britain, and its significance in the subsequent progress of that conflict was misunderstood. Drawing on archival sources on both sides of the Atlantic and interviews with survivors of the killing, pillaging and rape, as well as with high-ranking Nigerian military and political leaders, S. Elizabeth Bird and Fraser M. Ottanelli offer an interdisciplinary reconstruction of the history of the Asaba Massacre, redefining it as a pivotal point in the history of the war. Through this, they also explore the long afterlife of trauma, the reconstruction of memory and how it intersects with justice, and the task of reconciliation in a nation where a legacy of ethnic suspicion continues to reverberate.

Awards

Winner, 2018 OHA Book Award, Oral History Association

Reviews

‘This book is a significant contribution to a neglected aspect of the war’s history … I strongly recommend it for scholars and institutions that are interested in human rights and the history of the Nigeria–Biafra War.’

Arua Oko Omaka Source: War in History

Refine List

Actions for selected content:

Select all | Deselect all
  • View selected items
  • Export citations
  • Download PDF (zip)
  • Save to Kindle
  • Save to Dropbox
  • Save to Google Drive

Save Search

You can save your searches here and later view and run them again in "My saved searches".

Please provide a title, maximum of 40 characters.
×

Contents

Sources Consulted

Interview Sources

The first formal interviews with witnesses and survivors were conducted in October 2009, at the Asaba Memorial Symposium at the University of South Florida, which inaugurated the project. Between 2009 and 2016, the authors made eight visits to Nigeria, as well as one visit to London, where additional interviews with survivors and former military officers were conducted. In addition, the authors conducted four focus group interviews, each with five participants. All interviews were conducted in person, with one exception, and all were recorded. During these visits the authors also had many informal conversations and interactions with people in Asaba, Lagos, and elsewhere.

Authors’ Interviews with Witnesses and Survivors

  • Achuzia, Simon Uchenna (born 1960), March 14, 2014, Asaba.

  • Akaraiwe, Patricia (born 1939), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Asiodu, Philip C. (born 1934), Dec. 8, 2009, Tampa.

  • Awolo, Esananjo (birthdate not given), June 27, 2010, Asaba.

  • Azeh, Nicholas (born 1950), Oct. 5, 2011, Asaba.

  • Chizea, Osobodoa David (born 1937), June 27, 2010, Asaba.

  • Chizea, Mabel (born 1952), June 27, 2010, Asaba.

  • Chukwumah, Msr. Emmanuel (born 1925), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Chukwara, Emmanuel (born 1934), Dec. 16, 2009, Asaba.

  • Chukura, Patience (born 1939), Dec. 10, 2009, Lagos.

  • Egbuinwe, Michael (born 1955), May 3, 2012, Asaba.

  • Eneamokwu, Ken (born 1956), 28 June 2010, Asaba.

  • Enenmoh, Luke (born 1928), Oct. 10, 2014, London.

  • Esenwa, John (born 1953), Oct. 10, 2009, Tampa.

  • Igbeka, Catherine Nkendelim (born 1959), Oct. 10, 2014, London.

  • Ijeh, Frank (born 1930), Dec. 13, 2009, Asaba.

  • Isichei, Father Patrick (born 1937), Oct. 6, 2015, Asaba.

  • Isichei-Isamah, Celestina (born 1946), Oct. 10, 2014, London.

  • Izegbu, Victor (born 1953), April 15, 2016, Lagos.

  • Maduemezia, Emmanuel (born 1954), June 23, 2010, Asaba.

  • Maduemezia, Nkendelim (born 1955), June 23, 2010, Asaba.

  • Mkpayah, Christopher (born 1947), Dec. 10, 2009, Lagos.

  • Mordi, Assumpta (born 1963), Oct. 7, 2011, Asaba.

  • Monyei, Grace (born 1930), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Nduka Eze, Chuck (born 1963), Oct. 9, 2011, Asaba.

  • Nwajei, Joseph (born 1951), Oct. 10, 2009, Tampa.

  • Nawajei, Francis (born 1937), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Nwandu, Felicia (born 1947), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Nwanze, Emmanuel (born 1949), Dec. 16, 2009, Benin City.

  • Nwanze, Esther (born 1941), Oct. 5, 2011, Asaba.

  • Nwanze, Victoria (born 1954), Dec. 16, 2009, Benin City; May 3, 2012, Asaba.

  • Obaze, Nwaka (born 1920), Dec. 12, 2009, Asaba.

  • Obielue, Patrick (born 1954), Dec. 12, 2009, Asaba.

  • Obi, Emmanuel (born 1953), Oct. 10, 2009, Tampa.

  • Obi, Feli (born 1943), Dec. 15, 2009, Asaba.

  • Odiachi, Emmanuel (birthdate not given), Oct. 10, 2014, London.

  • Odiaka, Mike (born 1935), June 27, 2010, Asaba.

  • Odiwe, Catherine (birthdate not given), Oct. 7, 2011, Asaba.

  • Ogbogu, Michael (born 1944), May 3, 2012, Asaba.

  • Ogosi, Felix (born 1955), Dec. 13, 2009, Asaba

  • Ogosi, Frank Obi (born 1942), Dec. 15, 2009, Asaba.

  • Ogunkeye, Gertrude (born 1952), Dec. 11, 2009, Lagos.

  • Ojogwu, Peter-Claver (born 1945), Dec. 14, 2009, Asaba.

  • Okafor, Kingsley (born 1942), Oct. 5, 2011, Asaba.

  • Okafor, Stanley (born 1946), Oct. 12, 2011, Ibadan.

  • Okocha, Pastor Chris Adigwe Daniels (birthdate not given), Oct. 10, 2015, Asaba.

  • Okocha, Emma (born 1962), Oct. 13, 2009, Tampa.

  • Okocha, Akunwata S.O. (Sylvester) (born 1913), Dec. 13, 2009, Asaba.

  • Okolie, Onyeogali (born 1960), Dec. 13, 2009, Asaba.

  • Okonkwo, Emeka (born 1963), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Okonkwo, Patrick (born 1953), June 27, 2010, Asaba.

  • Okonjo, Peter (born 1949), Dec. 14, 2009, Asaba.

  • Okonta, Emeka Okalum (born 1973), June 24, 2010, Asaba.

  • Okwudi, Emma (born 1939), May 3, 2012, Asaba.

  • Onyia, Henry (born 1939), Dec. 15, 2009, Asaba.

  • Onochie, Felix (born 1929), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Onukwu, Emmanuel (born 1941), Dec. 15, 2009, Asaba.

  • Onyemenam, Benedict (born 1936), June 28, 2010, Asaba.

  • Onyemenan, Josephine (born 1954), June 23, 2010, Asaba,

  • Onyia, Henry (born 1939), Dec. 15, 2009, Asaba.

  • Osaji, Martina (born 1953), Oct. 5, 2011, Asaba.

  • Osakwe, Igwemma (born 1944), Dec. 12, 2009, Asaba.

  • Oweazim, Fabian (born 1954), Oct. 10, 2009, Tampa.

  • Ugboko, Charles (born 1946), Dec. 12, 2009, Lagos.

  • Uraih, Lucy Chineze (born 1950), May 3, 2012, Asaba.

  • Uraih, Ify (born 1952), Oct. 9, 2009, Tampa.

  • Uraih, Medua Gabriel (born 1948), Dec. 13, 2009, Asaba; May 3, 2012, Asaba.

  • Uraih, Victor Ubaka (born 1954), May 3, 2012, Asaba.

Additional Interviews by Authors

  • Achuzia, Gen. Joseph (rtd.), Biafran army, Oct. 8, 2015, Asaba.

  • Gowon, Gen. Yakubu, Oct. 10, 2016, Abuja.

  • Haruna, Gen. Ibrahim B.B. (rtd.), Nigerian army, April 11, 2016, Abuja.

  • Iweze, Gen. Cyril (rtd.), Nigerian army, April 13, 2016, Lagos.

  • Norris, Bill, retired journalist, Dec. 14, 2011 (by phone).

  • Nwachukwu, Gen. Ike Omar Sanda (rtd.), Oct. 11, 2016, Lagos.

  • Ogbebor, Col. Paul Osa (rtd.), Oct. 12, 2016, Benin City.

  • Onyekweli, Gen. Philip (rtd.), Nigerian and Biafran armies, April 16, 2016, Lagos.

  • Williams, Gen. Ishola (rtd), Nigerian army, April 14, 2016, Lagos

Archives

  • Several important archival collections were consulted by one or both authors:

  • African Collections at Michigan State University Library, East Lansing, USA.

  • American Friends Service Committee Archive, Philadelphia, USA.

  • Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, UK.

  • Royal Niger Company Archive at Unliver, Port Sunlight, UK.

  • School of Oriental and African Studies Library (SOAS), London, UK.

  • United Kingdom National Archive, Kew, UK.

Books and Articles

Achebe, Chinua, Home and Exile, New York: Random House, 2000.
Aka, Philip C., “The Need for Effective Policy on Ethnic Reconciliation,” in Udogu, E. Ike, ed., Nigeria in the Twenty-First Century, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2005, 4167.
Alexander, Jeffrey C., “Toward a Theory of Cultural Trauma,” in Alexander, Jeffrey C., Eyeran, Ron, Giesen, Bernhard, Smelser, Neil J., and Sztompka, Piotr, eds., Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004, 130.
Alexander, Philip, “A Tale of Two Smiths: The Transformation of Commonwealth Policy, 1964–70,” Contemporary British History, 20:3, 2006, 303321.
Akinyemi, A.B., “The British Press and the Nigerian Civil War,” African Affairs, 71:285, 1972, 408426.
Amoba, Mohibi, “Background to the Conflict,” in Okpaku, Joseph, ed., Nigeria, Dilemma of Nationhood. An African Analysis of the Biafran Conflict, Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972, 1475.
Anthony, Douglas, Poison and Medicine: Ethnicity, Power and Violence in a Nigerian City, 1966–1986, Oxford: James Currey, 2003.
Anthony, Douglas, “‘Resourceful and Progressive Blackmen,’: Modernity And Race in Biafra, 1967–70,” Journal of African History, 51, 2010, 4161.
Asiegbu, Johnson U.J., Nigeria and Its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History, New York/Lagos: Nok Publishers, 1984.
Assmann, Jan, “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity,” New German Critique, 65, 1995, 125133.
Azikiwe, Ifeoha, Asagba Prof. Joseph Chike Edozien: His Thoughts, Words, Vision, Bloomington, IN: Authorhouse, 2015.
Baker, Pauline, “Lurching toward Unity,” The Wilson Quarterly, 4, 1980, 7080.
Bartrop, Paul, “The Relationship between War and Genocide in the Twentieth Century: A Consideration,” Journal of Genocide Research, 4, 2002, 519532.
Bird, S. Elizabeth, “Seeking the Audience for News: Response, News Talk, and Everyday Practices,” in Nightingale, Virginia, ed., Handbook of Audience Studies, New York: Blackwell, 2011, 489508.
Blank, Gary, “Britain, Biafra and the Balance of Payments: The Formation of London’s ‘One Nigeria’ Policy,” Revue Francais de Civilisation Britannique, 2013, 18:2, 6686.
Campbell, David, “Cultural Governance and Pictorial Resistance: Reflections on the Imaging of War,” Review of International Studies, 29, 2003, 5773.
Cookman, Claude, “Gilles Caron’s Coverage of the Crisis in Biafra,” Visual Communication Quarterly, 15, 2008, 226242.
Church Missionary Society, “Letter from Diocese of Benin,” CMS Historical Record, 1968, 1.
Clark, Janine N., “Reconciliation through Remembrance? War Memorials and the Victims of Vukovar,” The International Journal of Transitional Justice, 7, 2013, 116135.
Cole, Elizabeth A., and Barsalou, Judy, “Unite or Divide: The Challenges of Teaching History in Societies Emerging from Violent Conflict,” United States Institute of Peace, Special Report 163, June 2006.
Collier, Paul, Hoeffler, Anke, and Rohner, Dominic, Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibilityand Civil War, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Working Paper Series 2006–2010.
Collis, Robert, Nigeria in Conflict, London: Secker and Warburg, 1970.
Cronje, Suzanne, The World and Nigeria: The Diplomatic History of the Biafran War 1967–1970, London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1972.
Curtis, Mark, Unpeople: Britain’s Secret Human Rights Abuses, London: Vintage, 2004.
Das, Veena, Life and Words: Violence and the Descent into the Ordinary, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
Davies, Patrick Ediomi, “Use of Propaganda in Civil War: The Biafra Experience,” doctoral thesis, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political Science, June 1995.
Davis, Morris, Interpreters for Nigeria: The Third World and International Public Relations, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977.
de Jong, Ferdinand, and Rowlands, Michael, Reclaiming Heritage: Alternative Imaginaries of Memory in West Africa. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2007.
Jorre, JohnSt., The Brothers’ War: Biafra and Nigeria, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972.
Doron, Roy, “Forging a Nation while Losing a Country: Igbo Nationalism, Ethnicity and Propaganda in the Nigerian Civil War 1968–1970,” Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, August 2011.
Doron, Roy, “Marketing Genocide: Biafran Propaganda Strategies during the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–70,” Journal of Genocide Research, 2014, 16:2–3, 227246.
Drinot, Paulo, “Website of Memory: The War of the Pacific (1879–84) in the Global Age of YouTube,” Memory Studies, 4:4, 2011, 371.
Ejiogu, E.C., “On Biafra: Subverting Imposed Code of Silence,” Journal of Asian and African Studies, 48, 2013, 741751.
Ekwelie, Sylvanus A., “The Nigeria Press under Military Rule,” International Communication Gazette, 25, 1979, 219232.
Erikson, Kai T., Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976.
Falola, Toyin, ed., Igbo History and Society: The Essays of Adiele Afigbo, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2005.
Falola, Toyin, and Heaton, Matthew M., A History of Nigeria, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Ferrándiz, Francisco, “The Return of Civil War Ghosts: The Ethnography of Exhumations in Contemporary Spain,” Anthropology Today, 22:3, 2006, 712.
Forsyth, Frederick, The Making of an African Legend: The Biafra Story, London: Penguin, 1969.
Forsyth, Frederick, The Outsider: My Life in Intrigue, London: Putnam, 2015.
Giles, Wenona, and Hyndman, Jennifer, eds., Sites of Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.
Gould, Michael, The Biafran War: The Struggle for Modern Nigeria, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012.
Govier, Trudy, Taking Wrongs Seriously: Acknowledgment, Reconciliation and the Politics of Sustainable Peace, Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2006.
Harneit-Sievers, Axel, Ahazuem, Jones O., and Emezue, Sydney, A Social History of the Nigerian Civil War: Perspectives from Below, Hamburg: Lit Verlag, Hamburg, 1997.
Harrison, Paul, and Palmer, Robin, News out of Africa: Biafra to Band Aid, London: Hilary Shipman, 1986.
Hatch, John, Nigeria: A History, London: Secker and Warburg, 1970.
Henry, Nicola, War and Rape: Law, Memory and Justice, London: Routledge, 2011.
Heerten, Lasse, and Moses, A. Dirk, “The Nigeria–Biafra War: Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide,” Journal of Genocide Research, 16:2–3, 169203.
Hetherington, Penelope, British Paternalism and Africa, 1920–1940, London: F. Cass, 1978.
Hinton, Alexander Laban, Transitional Justice: Global Mechanisms and Local Realities after Genocide and Mass Violence, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2011.
Hirsch, Herbert, Genocide and the Politics of Memory, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
Hodgkin, Katharine, and Radstone, Susannah, “Introduction: Rethinking Memory,” History Workshop Journal, 59, 2005, 129133.
Hoffman, Eva, “The Long Afterlife of Loss,” in Radstone, Susannah and Schwarz, Bill, eds., Memory: Histories, Theories, Debates, New York: Fordham University Press, 2010, 406415.
Hopwood, Julian, “We Can’t Be Sure Who Killed Us: Memory and Memorialization in Post-Conflict Northern Uganda,” International Center for Transitional Justice: Justice and Reconciliation Project, 2011.
Hynes, Michelle, and Lopes-Cardozo, Barbara, “Observations from the CDC: Sexual Violence against Refugee Women,” Journal of Women’s Health and Gender-based Medicine, 9:8, 2000, 819823.
Ikuomola, Adediran Daniel, “The Nigerian Civil War of 1967 and the Stigmatisation of Children Born of Rape Victims in Edo State,” in Branch, Raphaelle and Virgili, Fabrice, eds., Writing the History of Rape in Wartime, London: Palgrave McMillan, 2012, 169183.
Inal, Tuba, Looting and Rape in Wartime: Law and Change in International Relations, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.
Irwin-Zarecka, Iwona, Frames of Remembrance: The Dynamics of Collective Memory, New York: Transaction Publishers.
Isichei, Elizabeth, “Historical Change in an Ibo Polity: Asaba to 1885,” Journal of African History, 10, 1969, 421438.
Isichei, Patrick A.C., “Ex-Seminarian Ignatius Bamah in Asaba (c. 1900–67),” in Isichei, Elizabeth, ed., Varieties of Christian Experience in Nigeria, London: MacMillan, 1982, 177188.
Iweze, Daniel Olisa, “Post-CivilWar Intergroup Relations: The Western Igbo and Non-Igbo Groups in the Midwest State,” in Koreih, Chima and Ezeonu, Ifeanyi, eds., Remembering Biafra: Narrative, History, and Memory of the Nigeria-Biafra War, Glassboro, NJ: Goldline and Jacobs, 2010, 170184.
Kantowicz, Edward R., Coming Apart, Coming Together: The World in the 20th Century, Vol. 2, New York: Eerdmans, 1999.
Kansteiner, Wulf, “Finding Meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies,” History and Theory, 41, 2002, 179197.
Keil, Charles, “The Price of Nigerian Victory,” Africa Today, 17:1, 1970, 13.
Kimmerle, Erin H., “Forensic Anthropology: A Human Rights Approach,” in Langley, Natalie R. and Tersigni-Tarrant, MariaTeresa A., eds., Forensic Anthropology: An Introduction, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2012, 424438.
Kirk-Greene, Anthony H.M., Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966–1970 (2 Vols.), London: Oxford University Press.
Korieh, Chima J., ed., The Nigeria-Biafra War: Genocide and the Politics of Memory, Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2012.
Lugard, Frederick J.D., The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, London: William Blackwood, 1922.
Mibenge, Chiseche Salome, Sex and International Tribunals: The Erasure of Gender from the War Narrative, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.
Minow, Martha M., Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History after Genocide and Mass Violence, Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.
Mishra, Jyotsna, Women and Human Rights, New Delhi: Kalpaz, 2000.
Momoh, H.B., The Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970: History and Reminiscences, Ibadan: Sam Bookman Publishers, 2000.
Murphy, Karen and Gallagher, Tony, “Reconstruction after Violence: How Teachers and Schools Can Deal with the Legacy of the Past,” Perspectives in Education, 27:2, 2009, 158168.
Ndili, Augustine N., Guide to the Customs, Traditions and Beliefs of Asaba People, Asaba: His Bride Publications, 2010.
Niven, Rex, The War of Nigerian Unity, Towata, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1970.
Nora, Pierre, “Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire,” Representations, 26, 1989, 724.
Norris, Bill, “Media Ethics at the Sharp End,” in Berry, David, ed. Ethics and Media Culture: Practices and Representations, Oxford: Focal Press, 2000, 325338.
Nwogu, Nneoma V., Shaping Truth, Reshaping Justice: Sectarian Politics and the Nigerian Truth Commission, New York: Lexington, 2007.
Obiezu, Emeka X., “Memorialization and the Politics of Memory,” in Korieh, Chima J., ed., The Nigeria-Biafra War: Genocide and the Politics of Memory, Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2012, 187208.
O’Connell, James, “The Ending of the Nigerian Civil War: Victory, Defeat, and the Changing of Coalitions,” in Licklider, Roy, ed., Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End, New York: New York University Press, 1993, 189203.
Odoemene, Akachi, “Remember to Forget: The Nigeria-Biafra War, History, and the Politics of Memory,” in Korieh, Chima J., ed., The Nigeria-Biafra War: Genocide and the Politics of Memory, Amherst NY: Cambria Press, 2012, 163186.
Ohadike, Don. C., Anioma: A Social History of the Western Igbo People, Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994.
Okafor, Stanley I., “The Nigerian Army and the ‘Liberation’ of Asaba: A Personal Narrative,” in Eghosa, E., Osaghae, E., Onwudiwe, R., and Suberu, R., eds., The Nigerian Civil War and Its Aftermath, Ibadan, Nigeria: John Archers, 2002, 293299.
Okocha, Akunwata S.O., The Making of Asaba: A Compendium of over Sixty-Five Years of Patient Research within and without Africa, Rupee-Com Publishers, Asaba, 2013.
Okocha, Emma, Blood on the Niger, New York: Triatlantic Books (2nd Ed.), 1994.
Okonkwo, and Okolie, , Isheagu and the Nigerian Civil War, 1966–1970, printed in Lagos, no date.
Okonta, Ike, “Biafra of the Mind: MASSOB and the Mobilization of History,” Journal of Genocide Research, 16:2–3, 2014, 355378.
Okpaku, Joseph, Nigeria: Dilemma of Nationhood, Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972.
Okpoko, A. Ikechukwu and Okpoko, Pat Uche, Tourism in Nigeria, Nsukka: Afro-Orbis Publications, 2002.
Omaka, Arua Oko, “The Forgotten Victims: Ethnic Minorities in the Nigeria-Biafra War, 1967–1970,” Journal of Retracing Africa, 1:1, 2014, 2540.
Omoigui, Nowamagbe A., “Benin and the Midwest Referendum of 1963,” online at: http://www.waado.org/nigerdelta/ethnichistories/egharevbalectures/Fifth-Omoigui.htm
Omoigui, Nowamagbe A., “The Midwest Invasion of 1967: Lessons for Today’s Geopolitics,” online at: http://www.dawodu.net/midwest.htm
Orobator, Stanley E., “The Biafran Crisis and the Midwest,” African Affairs, 86:344, 1987, 367383.
Osia, Kunirum, “Anioma People Of The Delta,” http://www.anioma.org/
O’Sullivan, Kevin, “Humanitarian Encounters: Biafra, NGOs and Imaginings of the Third World in Britain and Ireland, 1967–70,” Journal of Genocide Research, 16:2–3, 2014, 299315.
Owen, Olly, “The New Biafrans: Historical Imagination and Structural Conflict in Nigeria’s Separatist Revival,” paper presented March 8, 2016, in Changing Character of War series, Pembroke College, University of Oxford, accessible at: http://www.ccw.ox.ac.uk/news/2016/4/11/the-new-biafrans-discussing-discontent.
Oyinbo, John, Nigeria: Crisis and Beyond, London: Charles Knight, 1971.
Paxton, Robert O., Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944, New York: Knopf, 1972.
Pentzold, Christian, “Fixing the Floating Gap: The Online Encyclopaedia Wikipedia as a Global Memory Place,” Memory Studies, 2:2, 2009, 255272.
Perham, Margery, “Reflections on the Nigerian Civil War,” International Affairs, 46, 1970, 231–46.
Peters, Jimi, The Nigerian Military and the State, New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 1997.
Phillips, Kendall R., and Reyes, G. Mitchell, eds., Global Memoryscapes: Contesting Remembrance in a Transnational Age. Tuscaloosa, University of Alabama Press, 2011.
Portelli, Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different?” in Perks, Robert and Thomson, Alistair, eds., The Oral History Reader, London: Routledge, 2016 (1979), 4858.
Radstone, Susannah, “Reconceiving Binaries: The Limits of Memory,” History Workshop Journal, 59, 2005, 135150.
Ross, Fiona C., “On Having Voice and Being Heard: Some After-Effects of Testifying before the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission,” Anthropological Theory, 3:3, 2003, 325341.
Schudson, Michael, “Lives, Laws, and Language: Commemorative versus Non-Commemorative Forms of Effective Public Memory,” The Communication Review, 2:1, 1997, 317.
Simola, Raisa, “Time and Identity: The Legacy of Biafra to the Igbo in Diaspora,” Nordic Journal of African Studies, 9:1, 2000, 98117.
Smith, Daniel J., “Burials and Belonging in Nigeria: Rural-Urban Relations and Social Inequality in a Contemporary African Ritual,” American Anthropologist, 106, 2004, 569579.
Smith, Daniel J., “Legacies of Biafra: Marriage, ‘Home People’ and Reproduction among the Igbo of Nigeria,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 75:1, 2005, 3045.
Smith, Karen E., “The UK and ‘Genocide’ in Biafra,” Journal of Genocide Research, 6:2–3, 2014, 247262.
Stremlau, John J., The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977.
Till, Karen E., “Memory studies,” History Workshop Journal, 62, 2006, 325341.
Thomson, Alistair, “Four Paradigm Transformations in Oral History,” Oral History Review, 34:1, 2007, 4970.
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History, New York: Beacon Press, 1995, 26.
Uche, Chibuike, “Oil, British Interests and the Nigerian Civil War,” Journal of African History, 49, 2008, 111135.
Uchendu, Egodi, Women and Conflict in the Nigerian Civil War. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2007.
Uchendu, Egodi, “The Growth of Anioma Cities,” in Falola, Toyin and Salm, Steven J., eds., Nigerian Cities, Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 2004, 153182.
Uchendu, Victor Chikezie, “Ezi na ulo: The Extended Family in Igbo Civilization,” Dialectical Anthropology, 31:1–3, 2007, 167219.
Ukiwo, Ukoha, “Violence, Identity Mobilization and the Reimagining of Biafra,” Africa Development, 34:1, 2009, 930.
Vaux, H., “Intelligence Report on the Asaba Clan, Asaba Division,” File No. 30927, Class Mark CSO 2614, Nigerian National Archive, Ibadan.
Young, John W., The Labour Governments 1964–1970, Vol. 2, International Policy, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004.
Yusuf, Hakeem O., “Travails of Truth: Achieving Justice for Victims of Impunity in Nigeria,” The International Journal of Transitional Justice, 1, 2007.
Zandberg, Eyal, “The Right to Tell the (Right) Story: Journalism, Authority and Memory,” Media Culture Society, 32:1, 2010, 524.
Zelizer, Barbie, Covering the Body: The Kennedy Assassination, the Media, and the Shaping of Collective Memory, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Zelizer, Barbie, “Why Memory’s Work on Journalism does not Reflect Journalism’s Work on Memory,” Memory Studies, 1:1, 2008, 7987.

Published Civil War Memoirs

Achebe, Chinua, There Was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra. New York: Penguin, 2012.
Achuzia, Joe O.G., Requiem Biafra, Asaba: Alcel Concerns, 2002 (2nd ed.).
Akpan, Ntieyong U. The Struggle for Secession 1966–1970: A Personal Account of the Nigerian Civil War, London: Cass, 1972.
Alabi-Isama, Godwin, The Tragedy of Victory: On the Spot Account of the Nigeria-Biafra War in the Atlantic Theatre, Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2013.
Alli, M. Chris, The Federal Republic of Nigerian Army: The Siege of a Nation, Lagos, Nigeria: Malthouse Press, 2000
Idahosa, Patrick E., Truth and Tragedy: A Fighting Man’s Memoir of the Nigerian Civil War, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria), 1989.
Isichei-Isamah, Celestina, They Died in Vain, London: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011.
Obasanjo, Olusegun, My Command: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970, London: Heinemann, 1980.
Oyewole, Fola, Reluctant Rebel, London: Rex Collings, 1975.
Soyinka, Wole, The Man Died: Prison Notes. London: Rex Collings, 1972.
Uwechue, Raph, Reflections on the Nigerian Civil War, New York: Africana Publishing Corporation, 1971.
Uzokwe, Alfred Obiora, Surviving in Biafra: The Story of the Nigerian Civil War, New York: Writers Advantage, 2003.

Newspaper and Periodical Sources

Abasiekong, Dan, “How to Bring the Ibos Back into Our Fold,” Daily Sketch (Nigeria), Oct. 7, 1967, 5.
Azuh, Kingsley, “Nduka Eze: A Life Dedicated to Selfless Public Service,” ThisDay, Oct. 2, 2016: http://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2016/10/02/nduka-eze-a-life-dedicated-to-selfless-public-service/.
Bamgbose, Sina, “Ojukwu Captured?” Daily Sketch, Oct. 13, 1967, 1 and back page.
Barnes, John, “Nigeria: A Time for Slaughter,” Newsweek, July 31, 1967, 3839.
Commonwealth Staff, “Inquiry Urged into Nigerian ‘Atrocities,’” The Guardian, Nov. 8, 1967, 5.
Daily Sketch (Nigeria), “The March on Asaba Bridge,” Oct. 9, 1967, 1.
Daily Sketch, Oct. 6, Untitled, 1.
Daily Sketch, “Ojukwu’s World of Fantasy,” Oct. 11, 1967, 1.
Daily Sketch, “Rebel Army Mutiny,” Oct. 12, 1967, 1.
Daily Sketch (Nigeria), “Asaba and Ika People Accept New Identity,” July 24, 1967, 3.
Daily Sketch, “The Ibos Miscalculated in Seceding – Says American Newspaper,” Oct. 6, 1967, 3.
Daily Sketch, “Ibos Were Victims of Ojukwu Propaganda, Says UK Paper,” Oct. 7, 1967, 2.
Daily Sketch, “Ibo Blindness Killed Peace Moves: Italian Paper,” Oct.13, 1967, 7.
Daily Sketch, “Now No More Ika Ibo – By Order,” Oct. 27, 1967, 8.
Friendly, Alfred Jr.City Shows Scars of the Nigerian War,” New York Times, Sept. 26, 1967, 1; 3.
Friendly, Alfred Jr. “Battle Continues for Nigerian City,” New York Times, 1967, Oct. 13: 1.
Garrison, Lloyd, “300 Ibo Tribesmen Killed by Troops and Nigerian Mob,” New York Times, Oct. 2, 1966, 1;17.
Garrison, Lloyd, “Nigeria Totters on the Brink,” New York Times, Oct. 9, 1966, E3.
Garrison, Lloyd, “Biafran War Refugees Describe How Nigerians Killed Villagers,” Toronto Globe and Mail (New York Times News Service), July 21, 1967, 8.
Garrison, Lloyd, “Biafrans Accept Risk of Defeat,” The Times (from New York Times), Aug. 3, 1968, 3.
Griot, ,” “Roundabout, the View from the Bridge, Asaba,” West Africa, Oct. 21, 1967, no. 2629, 1355.
Guardian (London), “Compromise – or Ruin for Both in Nigeria,” Nov. 10, 1967, 10.
Legum, Colin, “How 700 Ibos Were Killed by Mistake,” The Observer, Jan. 21, 1968, 21.
Mounter, Julian, “No Evidence of Genocide in Nigeria,” The Times, July 21, 1969, 5.
Newsweek, “Nigeria: Setting Sun,” Oct. 9, 1967, 4142.
Norris, William, “War across the Niger,” The Times, Oct. 24, 1967, 14.
Norris, William, “Biafrans’ Ordeal by Air Attack,” The Times, April 25, 1968, 8.
Nwobu, Lawrence Chinedu Nwobu, “Remembering Murtala Muhammed: The Butcher of Asaba,” Feb. 19, 2009, online at http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/forum/articles-comments/29729-remembering-murtala-muhammed-butcher-asaba-2.html.
Nwosu, Philip, “I’m Pro-Biafra – Soyinka,” The Sun (Nigeria), July 15, 2016, http://sunnewsonline.com/im-pro-biafra-soyinka/.
Obioha, McLord, “Why FGN Used Hunger against Ibos: Interview with Anthony Enahoro,” The Nigerian and Africa, March 1998, 910; 13.
O’Brien, Conor Cruise, “A Condemned People,” The New York Review of Books, Dec. 21, 1967, 1421.
Ogwuda, Austin, “Gowon Faults Setting Up of Oputa Panel,” Vanguard News, Dec. 09, 2002, available online at: https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/Naija-news/conversations/topics/2517.
Ojeifo, Sufuyan, and Ughegbe, Lemmy, “No Regrets for the Asaba Massacre of Igbo –Haruna,” The Vanguard, Oct. 10, 2001, http://www.nigeriamasterweb.com/nmwpg1HarunaIgboMassacre.html
Osifo, Iredia, “Five Rebel Spies Held in Asaba,” Daily Times (Nigeria), Nov. 17, 1967, 1.
Schwarz, Walter, “Why Nigeria’s War Splits Hawks and Doves in Whitehall,” The Observer, Aug, 27, 1967, 4.
Shepherd, Jack, “Memo from Nigeria: Old Headaches for our New President,” Look, 26, Nov. 1968, 74.
The Times, “Execution of Nigerian Officer Filmed,” Sept. 4, 1968, 1.
Time, “Drums of Defeat,” 90:14, Oct. 6, 1967, 70.
Uzodinma, Emmanuel, “You Have Made Nnamdi Kanu a Hero, Igbo Youth Movement Tells Buhari,” Daily Post, July 12, 2016, http://dailypost.ng/2016/07/12/you-have-made-nnamdi-kanu-a-hero-igbo-youth-movement-tells-buhari/.
Vanguard, , “Confusion, as MASSOB Disowns Radio Biafra Boss, Nnamdi Kanu,” The Vanguard, Oct.19, 2015, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/10/confusion-as-massob-disowns-radio-biafra-boss-nnamdi-kanu/.
Wolfers, Michael, “Nigerian Troops Close in on Ibo Heartland,” The Times, Aug. 30, 1968, 3.
Wolfers, Michael, “Nigeria Observers Find no Evidence of Genocide,” The Times, Oct. 4, 1968, 8.
Zeitlin, Arnold (Associated Press), “8,000 Ibo Tribesmen to Lack Food,” Gettysburg Times, Dec. 10, 1968, 12.

Metrics

Altmetric attention score

Full text views

Total number of HTML views: 0
Total number of PDF views: 0 *
Loading metrics...

Book summary page views

Total views: 0 *
Loading metrics...

* Views captured on Cambridge Core between #date#. This data will be updated every 24 hours.

Usage data cannot currently be displayed.