Transforming global food systems to meet sustainability and justice outcomes under climate change requires engaging with complex multi-level governance while appreciating specific local contexts. As such, climate change and food security are ‘messy’ policy issues; policies need to be effectively shaped and fit for purpose across different scales, geographic areas, and sectors. Policy implementation necessitates coordination across multiple perspectives towards a common goal, and an anticipatory governance approach can enable this. Working against the status quo is not easy but can be achieved through truly engaged and inclusive stakeholder processes. Redistribution of power entails employing a gendered, socially inclusive lens in the development of food system transformation policies. Establishing an enabling policy environment for transforming food systems requires diverse approaches and multiple perspectives. The appropriate facilitation and coordination of multi-stakeholder engagements is key to clear communication between participants and to support learning.

Competing claims of authority and persistent instability have had a profound impact on national politics in Libya. Yet despite national fragmentation, efforts to empower local governance bodies through a process of decentralization could contribute to what will be a long-term process of rebuilding the Libyan state. In the absence of capable and unified national institutions, local authorities, primarily municipal councils, have emerged as among the most trusted governing bodies in Libya. Such reliance on local solutions to national problems should not be interpreted as a rejection of the national state but rather a rejection of the centralized state. The challenge facing Libya’s political elites is how to accommodate this trend while acknowledging the long-term necessity of an efficient national state capable of managing and redistributing national resources and overseeing a responsible system of local governance. While this chapter argues that tangible progress toward decentralization could play a major role contributing to the stabilization of Libya, it recognizes that local processes are likely to remain that way – localized rather than systematic – absent a unified national stabilization effort that can integrate small-scale successes into a comprehensive political agreement. For all its promise, local governance alone cannot carry the burden of stabilization in Libya.

The first section (‘Centralisation’) traces the consolidation of authority in the hands of the benchers, whose internal supremacy appears to have been of fairly recent origin, and the growing interest of Elizabethan governments in the societies, with the effect of strengthening the benchers’ powers. Before the great expansion of membership, most of the routine administrative chores necessary to keep the societies operating on a day-to-day basis were undertaken by members themselves. But thereafter there was increasing reliance on salaried officers or servants (‘Bureaucratisation’), especially the creation of full-time administrative positions to assist the nominal temporary head of each society, the treasurer. On-going provision of catering and lodging depended on a continuously expanding domestic establishment. However the inns had both a ‘Servant Problem’, and a ‘Management Problem’. Servants depended for much of their income on tips and perquisites, leading to various conflicts of interest, while much of the responsibility for overseeing the societies’ affairs was shouldered by a small minority of benchers. The chapter concludes with a glance at difficulties experienced in managing the societies’ finances, which encouraged the commutation of former academic requirements into cash payments.

The first section of this chapter, ‘The Scope of Discipline’ traces the fashion in which the benchers initially sought to impose disciplinary constraints on members’ behaviour and demeanour. The growth of the inns after 1550 made it increasingly difficult to police the personal lives of junior members. But the benchers became more anxious to maintain and enhance their own authority, establishing sumptuary regulations on apparel, long hair and beards which emphasised the subordinate status of those below the bench, and sharply escalating measures against casual interpersonal violence within the societies.

They seem to have had some success in eliminating armed assaults, if not other forms of physical violence, while traditional violent behaviour outside the walls of the inns appears to have waned towards the end of our period. However, as ‘The Range of Defiance’ illustrates, collective defiance of and disobedience to the bench became a feature of life from the 1610s onwards, with sporadic outbreaks continuing until the end of the century and beyond, over sumptuary regulations, gambling at Christmas commons, and other issues.

The final section, ‘Authority and Revolt’ proposes that outbreaks of protest and rebellion in the latter half of our period were closely related to the major institutional changes examined in the preceding chapters.

Pharmaceutical systems are a core part of health systems, and their failure to work adequately severely undermines the performance of the entire health system. The view that medicines are mere commodities managed for technical aspects by the national regulatory authority, disregards the role and need for a comprehensive and multidisciplinary system to ensure access to essential medicines. This has serious consequences, as it leaves key functions underfunded and under-represented in national and international platforms where decisions related to health care systems and for achievement of UHC are made. Key strategies to strengthen pharmaceutical systems have been extensively described, but their effective implementation requires political commitment, institutional oversight and adequate financial allocation to each function, including quality assurance, financing, supply and transparency among others. Assessing pharmaceutical systems is often neglected but essential for promoting an effective health system as well as population health. The Chapter presents some key performance measures that countries should routinely apply to measure and report on the performance of pharmaceutical systems and on their good governance.

Just as there are determinants of health of individuals and communities, there are determinants of health system organization and performance which we term structural determinants. This chapter focuses on a set of such determinants considered key in understanding and strengthening health systems in low- and middle-income countries (L&MICs). These determinants include politics and governance; the economy, livelihoods and poverty; climate change, environmental degradation and natural disasters; social and organizational culture; wars and conflicts. Each of these determinants has its own set of issues. For example, with regards to politics and governance, it is intersection of the form of authority, institutional arrangements, political values, citizen participation, corruption, and informal governance channels that determine health system performance. While the influence of structural determinants on health systems is acknowledged, there is still limited attention to integrating work on structural determinants in health system thinking, policies and practice. This chapter argues for a multi-pronged strategy to address this gap: focusing on tackling inequities; removing misconceptions about health determinants among health workers; easing the path to health system work on health determinants; engaging concerned communities; evaluating innovations to address health determinants; and strengthening intersectoral collaboration.

Private hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies, and the doctors, nurses, and other medical personnel who staff them provide a large portion of healthcare services in low- and middle-income countries (L&MICs). In some, the private sector delivers much more care than the government. Understanding the scale, capacity, quality, constraints and motivations of private providers and private facilities – whether for-profit, non-profit, formal or informal – is critical to assuring that health services and medicines support and expand the goals of access to quality health care for all. This chapter sets out what is known regarding private care provision, from world-class hospitals to unlicensed and untrained village drug-sellers and summarizes the experience and frameworks being applied around the world to measure, regulate, and assure the efficient and effective provision of private health care as part of mixed-health-systems in L&MICs. In many settings the challenges of private sector governance are complicated by limited data, minimal financial transfers, and weak regulatory systems. Despite this, advances have been made in L&MICs to defining and applying good governance strategies.

This chapter discusses the IPCC’s performance as a ‘learning’ organisation. The Panel has responded to novel challenges by adjusting its governance structure and its underlying objectives and principles. Building on a heuristic of organisational learning, we reconstruct and map these past learning processes. We find that most of these challenges resulted in the IPCC adopting an adaptive mode of learning by incrementally adjusting procedures. There were only a few moments of reflexive learning. Against this backdrop, the chapter discusses future challenges for the IPCC emerging from the Paris Agreement and the call for a ‘solution-oriented assessment’. The IPCC has faced demands in the past for greater political relevance, geopolitical representation, scientific integrity, transparency, and accountability. In the post-Paris world, the Panel has to cope with its role in the polycentric architecture of the climate regime and its role as ‘mapmaker’ in the assessment of pathways to achieve the Paris ambition. We conclude by discussing how the IPCC can best use its learning capacities in responding to these challenges.

Governments and the markets in Europe have traditionally failed to adequately address environmental and ecological issues such as the access to clean and drinkable water and pollution of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. However, social enterprises across Europe have demonstrated that social entrepreneurship can play a role in providing creative and efficient solutions to social, environmental and ecological problems while employing inclusive and participatory governance models, which involve stakeholders and the affected society. Research in this chapter focuses on social enterprises in the Netherlands, which country also suffers from ecological porblems. Through a case study analysis of the Dutch social enterprise Dopper, which organisation aims to contribute to solving the problem of plastic waste, creating awareness about this problem as well as about access to drinking water, the contribution of value creation is analysed. Against the backdrop of a discussion concerning the emergence of social enterprises in the Netherlands despite the existence of a supportive legal framework, this chapter also illustrates examples of legal and participatory governance structures employed in Dutch social enterprises’ organisational structure and function. These can serve as illustrations of sustainable business structures in the Netherlands and in Europe.

This chapter offers a theoretical framework to understand the variation of ecolabel design based on the content, governance, and context of the label. Drawing upon green clubs and signaling theories, we suggest that ecolabels vary based on the stringency of the certification program, measured by the number and criticality of required standards, and the extent to which the requirements of these certifications incentivize the provision of public goods. We characterize important dimensions of ecolabels such as their impact, the value of the signal, and the extent to which they address externalities and information asymmetries. To illustrate these concepts, we take a closer look at GreenCo, a business sustainability rating system in India, and a sample of over 50 different agricultural ecolabels. This examination shows the important variation in factors like types of requirements, stringency, and institutional processes that govern the labels. Perhaps unsurprisingly, broader stakeholder engagement is associated with more emphasis on public benefits, while more surprisingly industry sponsorship does not tend to be found among the more lax labels with less public benefit.