Food production is one of the most significant achievements in Andean history. The domestication of plants and animals presented an enormous challenge, relating to changing technologies, settlement patterns, and social organization. This paper aims to assess Atacama Desert population dynamics and their relationship to the domestication of plants and animals through chronological modeling using kernel density estimation on radiocarbon (14C) dates, assuming that a higher 14C probability density is related to more intense human occupation. The analysis is based on a 14C dataset comprising 1003 14C dates (between 11,000 and 150 BP) from 243 archaeological sites in the Arica and Tarapacá regions of northern Chile, collected from published data. We observed two population-dynamics inflection points for these regions. First, starting at ca. 3000 BP, constant population growth occurred, which was related to horticulture in the Arica region and to agriculture in the Tarapacá region. Second, between ca. 1000 and 400 BP, a general population rise occurred due to the consolidation of intensive agriculture in the lowlands and precordillera altitudinal belts in both regions and the integration of the coast and the altiplano into macro-regional population dynamics.

Agroforestry plantings offer a promising ecologically based solution to address agricultural resource concerns while simultaneously achieving conservation goals, because they provide multiple benefits including reduced soil erosion, decreased nutrient runoff, increased biodiversity and greater farm income stability. Despite these benefits, the adoption of agroforestry practices remains low throughout the United States. One approach intended to increase the implementation of these ecologically beneficial practices is to offer financial incentives for landowners. Several USDA conservation programs provide applicant landowners with financial and technical resources to implement approved conservation practices, including tree planting. Missouri offers a unique socio-political context for the application of agroforestry tree plantings in established conservation programs as it is currently the only state with an Environmental Quality Incentives Program fund pool dedicated to agroforestry and woody crop establishment. To gather initial information on the potential for agroforestry in Missouri, seven conservation professionals from prominent agencies, including Natural Resource Conservation Service and University of Missouri Extension, were interviewed. The purpose of these interviews was to gather in-depth knowledge on (1) the current dialogue around trees in conservation programs between natural resource professionals and landowners (2) the relationships between landowners and conservation agencies and (3) the professionals' knowledge of and familiarity with agroforestry practices. Preliminary findings suggest there are misconceptions about the requirements and regulations for conservation programs among landowners and conservation professionals. Another common theme was that conservation agencies face challenges in forming long-term connections with landowners, and they rely primarily on landowners to reach out for assistance. Lastly, conservation professionals are supportive of agroforestry but wish for greater knowledge of the practices before promoting them to landowners. Due to the small sample size of interview participants, these insights provide one perspective into the agroforestry knowledge of natural resource professionals. These initial findings will help direct future research on how well natural resource professionals understand agroforestry concepts and how they are engaging with Missouri farmers to support them in planting trees on their land.

To assess the welfare of red deer (Cervus elaphus) confined at pasture or in indoor housing over winter, behaviour, productivity, skin damage and adrenal response to ACTH challenge were measured in six groups of eight weaner hinds over 91 days from June to September 1990 in Otago, New Zealand. The hinds were confined either indoors (I), indoors with daily exercise (IE), or outdoors (O); (n - 2 groups to each treatment). All groups were fed concentrate ad libitum plus 100g lucerne head−1 day−1.

Indoor confinement was associated with a greater incidence of nosing/chewing other hinds, aggression, chewing of the enclosure, and closer distances between individuals, compared with outdoor confinement (P < 0.05). Ad libitum provision of hay over a 2-week period reduced the incidence of chewing of indoor enclosures (P <0.01). Weight gain was greater for indoor groups than outdoor groups in August and September (P <0.05) and overall weight gains for indoor groups (from two weeks into the study, until the end) were higher for the exercise treatment (P <0.05). Intake of concentrates did not differ significantly between treatments. Skin damage was greater for indoor than outdoor groups (P <0.05), and positively related to weight gain (P <0.01) and receiving aggression (P <0.01), which in turn was negatively related to liveweight (P < 0.001). A negative relationship was found between pre-challenge levels of plasma Cortisol and the number of aggressive interactions received (P < 0.05). Pre-challenge Cortisol was greater for IE than I (P < 0.05), and the increase in Cortisol post-challenge was greater for outdoor groups than indoor groups (P <0.01). Conclusions were that indoor confinement had a positive effect on weight gain, but increased aggression and skin damage, indicating that the deer were compromised socially. Provision of ample forage reduced chewing of the walls. The slightly greater weight gain in IE compared with I deserves further investigation.

The frequency, intensity and location of fence line pacing were observed daily, in four groups of six farmed red deer hinds, over a 3-week period at calving. The groups were confined in neighbouring paddocks (5000m2 in area; two containing a wooden shelter) adjacent to deer yards containing an observation hide. At 1100h, a person entered each paddock to weigh, sex and tag newborn calves.

Pacing (moving parallel to and within 0.5m of a fence line) was mainly at walking speed, and its frequency differed according to the time relative to parturition. It was recorded in 13.6 (± 1.09) per cent of observations during the period 2-4 to days before calving, increased to 27.6 (± 1.9)per cent on the day before birth and then declined to 4.6 (± 0.39) per cent for the period of 0-3 days after calving. Pacing relative to total movement was greater before (65.7%) than after (43.5%) parturition (SED 3.7%; P < 0.001), indicating that it was not just a consequence of greater activity before birth. The hinds were observed to be grouped together rather than distributed randomly, but when some of the hinds were pacing, groups were spread out over more quarters of the paddock than when none were pacing (P < 0.001). However, there was no definite suggestion of avoidance of other deer. Within each group, most pacing occurred along certain fence lines, but no general pattern was observed. Regardless of whether hinds had given birth or not, there were graded increases in pacing depending on the degree of human presence (not present<within deer yards <visible<in paddock; P < 0.05); and deer favoured areas distant from human presence (P < 0.01). The findings in relation to fence line pacing and location support suggestions that human interference at calving should be minimized, but did not indicate which environmental features were responsible for this motivational drive.

Welfare is being promoted as a reason why ostriches should not be kept on farms in Europe. It is reasoned that the climate, particularly during winter, is unsuitable for these birds despite there being little scientific evidence to support this claim. This study recorded the frequency of behaviours of male and female adult ostriches kept on a farm in Britain during the spring of 1996. ‘Rainy’, ‘dull and dry’, ‘bright and dry’, and ‘sunny’ weather categories were used to assess the influence of climate on behaviour. Six main behaviours (sitting, standing, pacing, walking, foraging and feeding) were observed together with a variety of low frequency ‘other’ behaviours which were combined for analysis. Gender had no significant effect on any of the behaviour frequencies. During ‘rainy’ periods both males and females showed sitting behaviour five times more than during ‘dull’ and ‘bright’ weather and two and a half times more than during ‘sunny’ weather. Increased sitting behaviour during rainy periods was due to a significant reduction in pacing and ‘other’ behaviours with no significant effect on feeding and foraging behaviours. Sitting during sunny weather also occurred more often than during dull and bright weather but not at the expense of any other particular behaviour. Adult ostriches in Britain alter their behaviour in response to prevailing weather conditions, particularly rain.

Ostrich welfare on farms of is great importance, particularly because little is known about appropriate husbandry conditions for these birds in a northern European environment. Rain has been shown to influence the pattern of behaviour during the spring months. This study examined the effects of four different climatic conditions (raining, dull but overcast, bright but overcast and sunny) on the behaviour of ostriches during the winter. Compared with dry conditions, there was a significantly higher rate of sitting during rainy periods — apparently at the expense of foraging (from pasture) and pacing (around the perimeter). The rate of sitting was much lower than that reported for the same birds during rain in the spring. During all climatic conditions, feeding (on concentrate feed provided) and foraging were the most dominant behaviours. Feeding was not significantly affected by rain but the frequency of foraging was reduced. Standing was a common behaviour. There were significant gender differences for standing (males > females) and foraging (females > males). These results show that winter conditions require ostriches to feed and forage at higher rates than during the spring or summer, presumably to consume more energy for thermoregulation. Gender differences in pacing and feeding behaviours previously observed in breeding birds were absent in non-breeding ostriches (presumably because males were not defending territories); although non-breeding males appeared to be more vigilant than females and needed to consume more food. Improvements in ostrich husbandry should take into account the need to provide both adequate shelter and more concentrate rations during the cold weather of winter. Energy requirements will be higher at this time, yet the ability of the birds to forage will be diminished. Without such considerations, ostrich welfare during the winter in northern Europe will be compromised.

Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) farming in Latin American countries was hampered at the outset by limited knowledge of species behaviour and inappropriate husbandry protocols, which resulted in low reproductive rates, lethal adult fights and consequent reduced well-being. As the peculiarities of capybara social behaviour are still ignored by many species’ breeders, both in commercial or research centres, we aim here to provide a review of successful experiences in Brazil by evaluating a number of social behaviour issues that are directly associated with the species’ welfare. We highlight special points on group composition and facilities needed, such as water tank and corral-trap structures, which may affect capybara health, productivity, and animal welfare. It has been shown that trying to form new aggregates by mixing adult or sub-adult animals obtained from different groups does not work. Conversely, we did not find a difference in the frequency with which mothers from the same group nurse their own young or those of other females. This knowledge may lead to successful trials for female adoption when necessary. In conclusion, capybara welfare is strongly linked to cohesion among animals. Additionally, assessment of vocal emissions is discussed as a potential, non-invasive measure to evaluate improvement in capybara handling procedures.

An ever-expanding scientific literature highlights the impact of the prenatal environment on many areas of biology. Across all major farmed species, experimental studies have clearly shown that prenatal experiences can have a substantial impact on outcomes relevant to later health, welfare and productivity. In particular, stress or sub-optimal nutrition experienced by the mother during pregnancy has been shown to have wide-ranging and important effects on how her offspring cope with their social, physical and infectious environment. Variation in the conditions for development provided by the reproductive tract or egg, for instance by altered nutritional supply or hormonal exposure, may therefore explain a large degree of variation in many welfare- and productivity-relevant traits. The scientific literature suggests a number of management practices for pre-birth/hatch individuals that could compromise their later welfare. Such studies may have relevance for the welfare of animals under human care, depending on the extent to which real life conditions involve exposure to these practices. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of extending the focus on animal welfare to include the prenatal period, an aspect which until recently has been largely neglected.

The inhabitants of the vast Chalcolithic Trypillia sites of Eastern Europe required highly organised strategies to meet subsistence needs. Here, the authors use isotopic analyses of faunal remains from Maidanetske, Ukraine, to identify intensive and extensive grazing practices. The former demanded intra-community negotiation to ensure access to high-quality pastures for valuable animals such as dairy cows, suggesting that pasture may have also served socially integrative functions. The simultaneous use of extensive pasturing strategies for cattle placed on different pastureland suggests that landscapes were partitioned, with access determined by cooperation or competition. Maidanetske's dual pasturing system reflects the importance of spatially organised practices in maintaining social structure.

North Macedonia is a crucial region for understanding the spread of agriculture into the Mediterranean and Central Europe. To date, however, the area has been subject to relatively limited archaeological research. Here, the authors present use-wear and archaeobotanical analyses on material from two Neolithic sites, Govrelevo and Vrbjanska Čuka, to investigate practices that were previously unstudied in this part of the Balkans, such as sowing, cultivation and harvesting techniques. The results suggest the presence of permanent crop fields located in wetlands, with autumn and spring sowing, and harvesting using curved sickles. The study illuminates early agricultural practices in North Macedonia and adds to our knowledge of the spread of the Neolithic package across Europe.

The paper explores the emergence and development of arable farming in southeastern Norway by compiling and analyzing directly dated cereals from archaeological contexts. By using summed probability distributions of radiocarbon dates and Bayesian modeling, the paper presents the first comprehensive analysis of the directly dated evidence for farming in the region. The models provide a more precise temporal resolution to the development than hitherto presented. The results demonstrate that the introduction of arable farming to southeastern Norway was a long-term development including several steps. Three different stages are pointed out as important in the process of establishing arable farming: the Early and Middle Neolithic, the Late Neolithic, and the Early Iron Age.