The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Slovakia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. the management of forests and agricultural habitats, and use of Rural Development measures); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Ireland, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, species-rich grasslands and agri-environment schemes, and peatland management and restoration); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter briefly describes the evolution of EU environmental policy, before primarily focusing on the Birds Directive and Habitats Directive (i.e. the Nature Directives), in particular their objectives and key measures for habitats and species. These comprise two key pillars of measures: 1) general species protection; 2) the creation of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas as well as their protection from developments (through appropriate assessments) and the establishment of their necessary conservation measures. The main sources of funding for the Nature Directive and broader nature conservation are identified. Other supporting EU environmental policies and legislation are outlined, including in relation to environmental impact assessments, strategic environmental assessments, the Environmental Liability Directive, the Water Framework Directive, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and other maritime policy instruments, air pollution, the Invasive Alien Species Regulation, and the Common Agricultural Policy. A summary is provided of the EU Biodiversity Strategies of 1998, and for 2010, 2020 (with a list of the targets and related actions) and 2030.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Germany, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. landscape planning, biodiversity offsets, management of High Nature Value farmland, and forest management); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in the Czech Republic, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. habitat restoration, non-intervention and rewilding); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Portugal, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Action / Recovery Plans, and dealing with conflicts with the Wolf Canis lupus); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and impacts assessment, habitat management and alien invasive species); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Poland, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. regulation of hunting and fishing, and species action plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. concerning development planning, agri-environment schemes, forestry, water management and pollution); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter provides an overview of the aims and scope of the book (including the European countries covered), its structure and standard topics covered in each country. Includes the general objectives of the Birds and Habitats Directives, and the standard categories used to report on the status of habitats and species. Protected areas and their categories are defined. Key data sources are identified, including for the status of habitats and species; protected area coverage; and nature conservation costs and funding. The taxonomy and sources of species names are listed.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Greece, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. regulating hunting, and tackling the use of illegal poisoned baits); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. in relation to development planning, forests, water management, and alien invasive species); nature conservation costs and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Cyprus, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. relating to the killing of songbirds, and the conservation of sea turtles); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and impact assessment, and invasive alien species); nature conservation costs and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Latvia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and impact assessment, and management and restoration of coastal habitats, rivers, grasslands, mires and forests); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Croatia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. management of large carnivore populations); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. management of agricultural habitats, and water management); nature conservation costs and main funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Italy, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. regulation of hunting and poaching, and species recovery and action plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, and management of High Nature Value farmland); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Romania, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. concerning hunting, and large carnivores); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. for coastal habitats and the Danube Delta, High Nature Value farmland and forests); nature conservation costs and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Finland, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. for large carnivores); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. the management and restoration of agricultural habitats and forests, tackling alien invasive species, and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Belgium, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. the national bee plan); protected areas and their management; general conservation measures (e.g. management of High Nature Value farmland and use of agri-environment schemes, forest management, and habitat restoration); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Hungary, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Action Plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. agri-environment schemes, addressing alien invasive species, and nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Sweden, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, offsetting and compensation measures, management of natural forest habitats, and hydropower permitting); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Estonia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Action Plans and Management Plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. forestry and biodiversity conservation, and the restoration of grasslands, mires and rivers); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in the United Kingdom, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including post-Brexit), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. concerning persecution of birds of prey, strictly protected species, and species reintroductions); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and biodiversity offsetting, marine spatial planning, peatland and coastal habitat restoration, forest expansion, rewilding, and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified, including potential divergence from EU nature legislation. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.