The bombardment of Essaouira in 1844 by the French fleet was a decisive turning-point in the history of Essaouira. The pattern of trade that had evolved gradually over the previous twenty years was threatened. Morocco had timidly initiated an opening with Europe by developing a system of royal trade over which the Sultan was able to exercise close control. Such protectionism was to crumble under the weight of foreign pressure. The capacity of Europe to impose its will was demonstrated by the events of 1844. Within a period of fifteen years after the French attack, Morocco had embarked on a precipitous course towards foreign domination. Two decisive events made this inevitable: the treaty with Great Britain in 1856, and the Spanish invasion of Tetuan in 1859–60. Both of them permanently altered the relationship between the Muslim authorities and the foreigners and their protégés in Essaouira.

The revival of trade

The opening of Morocco to Europe began two decades before the war of 1844. Foreign trade was resumed by Sultan ʿAbd ar-Rahmān (1822–59), who had spent some time in Essaouira as governor prior to his succession to the throne. His interest in foreign trade was probably reinforced by his close ties to some of the merchants of the town. In contrast to the reign of Mawlāy Sulaymān, ʿAbd ar-Rahmān viewed trade with Europe as a valuable source of revenue.

International trade was at the centre of Essaouira's economic life and the most influential men of the town were the merchants who were the Sultan's traders. Their special relationship to the Sultans gave them particular advantages over other traders, and at certain periods, they maintained a quasi-total monopoly of the import–export trade. The Sultan's merchants (tujjār as-Sultān) had the opportunity to make considerable profits, yet at the same time, they depended on the official recognition and patronage of the palace. The fact that the majority of them were Jews was also significant. As legally inferior members of the only religious minority in Morocco, they could almost never attain positions of political power or have a share in local government outside the confines of the Jewish community. For this reason, as a general rule, they were highly dependent on the Palace and, consequently, their loyalty was usually assured.

As merchants, however, they were able to exert considerable local influence since the prosperity of the town depended on their enterprises. In some ways, these royal merchants were similar to the ‘court Jews’ of central Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In both cases, elite Jews were economic instruments of the rulers. Equipped with foreign languages and international connections, the court Jews were used in diplomatic affairs as well.

The approach to Essaouira from the land presents the image of an oasis. ‘It bursts upon one's view like a desert mirage, for several miles of drifting sand-hills have first to be crossed and on the far side nestles the town, its white roofs and mosque towers shown up clearly by the deep blue sea beyond.’ Essaouira appears like most other cities in Morocco: its immediate hinterland is uncultivated. Only a few gardens stretch out for a short distance beyond the ramparts. The town itself is on a promontory jetting out into the sea, so that its climate is always temperate and breezy. One has to travel only a few miles inland to enter a hot, intemperate zone. The city, surrounded by its walls, gives one a sense of isolation from the rest of the world; its micro-climate contributes to this feeling of detachment from the rest of Morocco.

And yet this physical image belies the senses. In many ways Essaouira was tied both to its hinterland and to distant inland markets. The constant stream of merchants and pedlars – of Berber tribesmen and Jews – through the town gates was another striking image of the town. This continual movement of people and goods relied on social networks which, under normal conditions, facilitated the peaceful passage of itinerant traders and caravans over distances near and far.

In 1764, the new town of Essaouira was founded by Sultan Sīdī Muhammad b. ʿAbdallāh (1756–80) due west of Marrakesh on the Atlantic coast. It was to be Morocco's main seaport for trade with Europe. The Sultan, as legend suggests, intended to make the port a great and prosperous city where the principal Moroccan merchants could dwell and make fortunes.

Essaouira did indeed become the principal maritime port of Morocco within a decade after its creation, a status it maintained for over a century. But the legendary grandeur of the royal port of Sultan Muhammad III contrasts markedly with the stark reality portrayed by vice-consul Grace.