Seitdem der große Semitist und Äthiopist W. Leslau (1906–2006) seine Serie von Untersuchungen zum arabischen Lehngut in den äthio-semit. Sprachen – darunter auch zwei Beiträge zu arabischen Lehnwörtern im Amharischen (zudem mehrere Aufsätze, in denen auch die Arabismen im Amharischen unmittelbar berührt werden) – vorgelegt hat, schien auch das arab. Lehngut im Amharischen hinreichend dokumentiert und untersucht. Wie viel hier noch der Erledigung harrte, wurde erst deutlich, als W. K. Brzuski 1983 seine Dissertation „Zapożyczenia Arabskie w dawnym i współczesnym języku amharskim”, in der sich zahllose Ergänzungen zu den beiden Beiträgen Leslau's sowie den in den übrigen Aufsätzen der erwähnten Reihe enthaltenen Verweisen auf arab. Lehngut auch im Amhar. fanden, vorlegte. Nur wenige Jahre nach dem Erscheinen von Brzuski's Arbeit erschien schließlich ein Sammelband der erwähnten Beiträge Leslau'1, in welchem all seine bis dahin erschienenen Aufsätze zum arab. Lehngut in den äthio-semit. Sprachen sowie mit dem Gegenstand verwandten Forschungen zusammengestellt und mit nach Einzelsprachen geordneten Registern versehen waren. In diesem Band waren offenbar auch zahlreiche der Ergänzungen Brzuski's berücksichtigt (– allerdings ohne Nennung Brzuski'1) und weitere Arabismen in den äthio-semit. Sprachen, die sich jedoch nur in den erwähnten Registern (– weithin ohne erläuternde Angaben), nicht hingegen in den Einzelbeiträgen, nach denen ebenfalls Ergänzungen problemlos hätten vorgenommen werden können, finden, aufgeführt. Umgekehrt sind verschiedene andere Arabismen, von denen Leslau in der Zwischenzeit abgerückt war, von der Aufnahme in das erwähnte Glossar ausgenommen worden. Die Zusammenstellung des Registers weist allerdings eine Reihe von Schwächen auf. So hätte der Sammelband resp. die dort im Register gegebene Erfassung des arab. Lehnguts ganz maßgeblich von einigen der etymologischen Arbeiten Leslau'1 außerhalb der erwähnten Reihe (bspw. zum Harari oder zum Gəʿəz) sowie – im Falle des Lehnguts im Amhar. – dem Wörterbuch von Th. L. Kane8 – profitieren können.

Eine wesentliche Schwäche der Beiträge Leslaus liegt darin begründet, daß dieser für die Ermittlung arab. Lehnguts in den äthio-semit. Sprachen vornehmlich vom Schriftarabischen ausgegangen ist9 und demzufolge strikt nach Wörterbüchern gearbeitet hat, nicht hingegen den Versuch unternahm, die arab. Dialekte aus denen diese Sprachen das Lehngut empfangen haben, zu bestimmen resp.

Yoga is growing in popularity in Poland. As with every fashion, this leads to a number of simplifications, and sometimes even misunder-standings.

Meanwhile, the book by Professor Konecki is a book about yoga in the context of modern culture. It is also a book about modern culture in the context of yoga. It gathers the experience of trainees, and shows as well the phenomenon that evolved out of Indian tradition and became an integral part of Western-European lifestyle.

One may ask: in a world of corporations, business transactions, sports competitions and a lay world which is mistrustful towards everything that does not withstand the trial of rational discussion, is there space for the search for inner peace and harmony? How much does physicality (asana exercises) bind with spirituality? It is worth asking yourself these questions even if you have never set nor intend to set foot on the yoga mat. Maybe it is especially worth asking in a country like Poland, which is so dynamically changing and where the meaning of individual choices is becoming ever more important. Every thought which helps one harmonize the micro-cosmos that every human-being is, as well as consciously influence the macro-cosmos – the way the society functions and the way to treat the world we live in – is very valuable. Yoga, which may be treated as “the everyday life religion” (as described by Professor Konecki), or as a way to keep one's psycho-physical fitness in good shape, or as a chance to build community relationships, or connected with Indian culture, or maybe with the New Age, definitely offers one a chance to take control of his or her life. Even if we start from something as basic as our body, if we fully realize the influence that we have on it, that our body really belongs to us, maybe it will be easier to accommodate other aspects of our lives: conscious decision-making, human relations, and our use of natural resources and of the skills given to us. Is this a utopia? Perhaps, but perhaps too it is an opportunity that we overlook because it gets crushed by life's everyday pressures, and because we run away from difficult confrontations with here-and-now solutions.

The paper focuses on the concept of transculturality introduced by Wolf-gang Welsch (cf.Welsch 1998, Welsch 2004), adapting it to the analyses of different fields of convergence in contemporary Polish culture: employing and transforming old Oriental genres into more hybrid forms appearing on the Internet, becoming parts of artistic exhibitions or being incorporat-ed into artists’ books. It is a convergence of a special kind – “transplant-ing” the genres into the new medial ground must have been preceded by their basic assimilation in the new culture.

The term ‘convergence’ is used to describe different technological, in-dustrial, social and cultural processes (Jenkins 2007: 9, Jakubowicz 2011: 27).

All of them prove important in the analyses concerning the “transplan-tation” of the foreign literary and artistic genres, which seem utterly in-congruent with the Polish tradition. In the paper, however, I concentrate only on the cultural dimensions of the problem, believing they define an interesting field of research for comparative cultural studies. As Jenkins claims, convergence is not just a matter of sophisticated media devices but a process occurring in human minds and human communication (cf. Jen-kins 2007: 9).

I am interested mainly in three genres: haiku, haiga and haibun.The common basis of the three is haiku: a poetic genre strongly related to vi-sual arts (calligraphy, similarities of imagery in haiku and sumi-e, nanga, ukiyo-e, shared aesthetic and ethical beliefs of haijins and Zen painters – cf. Addiss 2005, Śniecikowska 2007: 243–251).

Einleitung

Der vorliegende Beitrag versteht sich als Fortsetzung des in den Jahren 2009–2012 an der Universität Szczecin geführten Projekts Phraseologismen in deutsch-polnischen und polnisch-deutschen Worterbuchern. Bilinguales phraseologisches Online-Worterbuch als MYSQL-Datenbank, in dessen Rahmen u. a. die Arbeit an phraseologischen Glossen begonnen wurde. Das damalige Ziel der Untersuchung bestand darin, das Wesen von phraseologischen Glossen anhand der im Projekt analysierten Wörterbücher zu erforschen und eine vorläufige Klassifikation vorzunehmen, zumal das Korpus nur zwei lexikographischen Quellen2 entnommen wurde. Neben metalexikographischen Erkenntnissen lieferte die Forschungsarbeit auch zahlreiche Anregungen für die Praxis der Wörterbuchherstellung (vgl. Nerlicki 2011, 2012, 2013).

Im folgenden Aufsatz wird die Diskussion über weitere Differenzierungsmöglichkeiten von phraseologischen Glossen fortgeführt (Abschnitt 3). Dem geht ein kurzer Exkurs zum Wesen von phraseologischen Glossen voraus (Abschnitt 2). Um die lexikographische zweisprachige Praxis zu effektivieren, werden in Abschnitt 4 ausgewählte Beispiele von Phraseologismen gezeigt, bei denen Glossen erwünscht wären. Schließlich werden einige Forschungsperspektiven skizziert.

Glossen in der Lexikographie und Phraseographie

Der Terminus Glosse (eng. gloss, poln. glosa) wird in linguistischen Lexika als lexikographische Einheit kaum erläutert.3 Mehr Platz widmen ihm metalexikographische Facharbeiten, wobei auch hier keine difinitorische Einheit besteht (vgl. exemplarisch Kromann, Riiber, Rosbach 1984: 190; Hessky 1996: 36 ff.; Hausmann, Werner 1991: 2737 f.; Engelberg, Lemnitzer 2004: 231; Model 2010: 50). Während Hausmann, Werner (1991: 2737 f.) Glossen als Mittel des tertium comparationis bei den Polyäquivalenzbeziehungen zwischen ausgangssprachlichen Lemmata und ihren zielsprachlichen Entsprechungen bestimmen, verstehen Kromann, Riiber, Rosbach (1984: 190) diese viel umfangreicher, z. B. auch als unterschiedliche Markierungen (etwa geh für gehobenen Sprachgebrauch, pej für abwertenden Sprachgebrauch etc.) oder aber grammatische Informationen (z. B. über die Hauptformen der deutschen Verben) etc. Selbst in Einleitungen zu Wörterbüchern – den sogenannten Außentexten – wird die Bezeichnung Glosse selten verwendet. Viel häufiger treten folgende Termini wie etwa Bedeutungshinweise4, Minidefinitionen5 etc. auf. Frączek, Lipczuk (2004: 14) definieren Glossen folgendermaßen:

Folklore and folkloristics

In many dictionaries and handbooks the folklore phenomenon has been described as traditional art, literature, everyday knowledge, and practices that are passed from generation to generation through oral communication, example and imitation. Folklore was transmitted diachronically (through centuries) and synchronically (within group milieux) and the information thus passed on expressed the shared ideas and values of a particular ethnic or social group.

The formal academic discipline devoted to the study of folklore is known as folkloristics, although it is sometimes also termed as folklife research and folklore studies. Because of its interdisciplinary character, folkloristics shares methodological approaches and insights with anthropology and ethnography, history and art, literature and linguistics, semiotics, musicology, etc. But unchangeably since its beginings the discipline of folkloristics has been always focused on collecting different kinds of folklore forms as evidence of everyday cultural knowledge and the collective memory of the group (‘folk’). The aim of ‘lore’ items collection is their preservation, because folklore is – ex definitione – a vanishing subject, and then its classification and systematisation (archives, inventories, repositories). The next stage is dealing with folklore items: its their interpretation, and presentation of research results.

Thus folkloristics contains studies on folklore as an historical artefact in the aspect of continuity (survival, revival); as ethnopoetry (folk genres, types, motifs), as well as research on folklore as a behaviour and a text of culture. In spite of folklore's lack of substance, the folklore itself – as an expression of culture and group identity – belongs to the cultural heritage of humanity. Looking back to folklorists’ achievements, they constantly participate in the process of identification, study, interpretation, protection, conservation and presentation of cultural heritage.

A definition of folklore and cultural heritage

Having in mind the definition of oral and intangible heritage, folklore masterpieces should be preserved, protected and safeguarded. The concept of cultural heritage safeguarding is linked to the notion of ethnic and cultural identity, and its modern connotations give rise to interesting issues surrounding the problem of identity and multiplied identities created by global multi-media. On the one hand lie considerations of human rights and acceptance of individual and collective identity. On the other, there are the social, political, and economic issues connected with progressive globalisation and the omnipotential cultural power of electronic devices.

Folkloristics is the study of folklore using approaches and insights from science and the humanities. Folklore expresses a people's culture and heritage, and so helps define our ethnic and cultural identities.

Professor Violetta Krawczyk-Wasilewska, the author of the essays in this book, has enjoyed a long and successful career as a folklorist. She has worked with various folklore resources, most of them narrative genres, transmitted orally and locally, but also in printed and pictorial form. More recently she has expanded her resource base to include online folklore.

Online and digital cultures are both driving and following a process of globalisation. Global multimedia culture not only endangers traditional folklore but also creates new folklore, often in surprising ways. The miscellany of themes that the author touches upon in this book amply illustrate the range of modern folklore studies. My brief remarks here merely hint at that range.

Serendipity can play a role in such studies, as it did when the author discovered by chance, while browsing the web, a folkloristic painting known as The Netherlandish Proverbs painted in 1559 by Pieter Bruegel The Elder (chapter I). This fascinating work of art illustrates perhaps a hundred Flemish proverbs and sayings, most of them still in use in many European languages.

Today anyone at home with a tablet or a smart phone can read and write gossip, rumours, jokes, hoaxes, urban legends, chain letters, and fact and fiction of all kinds, and publish it worldwide in seconds. Much of the outpouring that results is highly ephemeral, but such ephemera are prolific breeders of new ephemera in an exploding profusion of what author calls e-folklore (chapter II).

New media are used both for serious business and for entertainment as well as for sharing personal opinions and emotions. The web has become a global folklore encyclopaedia, not only through Wikipedia but also as a platform for creating and publishing content of all kinds. This activity feeds the world of digital folklore, which now forms a major part of our collective human culture and heritage (chapter III).

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has the mission to protect the world cultural and natural heritage, while promotion and protection of the European cultural heritage is regulated by the Council of the European Union.

The earliest extant Cornish lexicographical sources are glosses on Latin texts dating from around the end of the 9th century ad. The earliest of these glosses, “ud rocashaas”, appears above the adjective perosa ‘loathing’ in De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius, in a passage in which Philosophy tells Boethius, “For I have swift feathers, which fly up to the height of heaven. When quick Thought clothes herself in them, with loathing she despises the lands below (Terras perosa despicit)” (Breeze 2007: 367). Cashaas is the third person preterite ‘hated’ and has the Middle Cornish reflex casas. Ro is the perfective verbal particle and has the Middle Cornish reflex re. Breeze (2007: 368) explains ud as a gloss for terras, ‘land’. A further nineteen Cornish glosses are to be found in Smaragdus's 9th century Commentary on Donatus (Loth 1907). Three more Cornish glosses are to be found, written on a Latin text of the Book of Tobit, in Oxoniensis Posterior which dates from the 10th century (Stokes 1879: 21). There are a small number of Cornish glosses in the Prophetia Merlini by Joannis Cornubiensis, thought to have been written between 1153 and 1154 (Curley 1982: 222–223).

The Vocabularium Cornicum is an 11th or possibly 12th century multilingual glossary compiled from a corpus of glossed Latin texts. Lhuyd (1707: 222) recognized several interpretamenta that were to be found in Cornish but not found in Welsh. Lhuyd concluded that the Vocabularium is a Latin-Cornish glossary. Mills (2013a), however, shows that this glossary is in fact multilingual and, whilst it includes many Cornish glosses, it also incorporates Old Welsh, Old Breton, Old Norman French and Old English glosses. As a template, the Vocabularium Cornicum uses the earlier onomasiological Latin-English Lexicon of Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham (c. 955 – c. 1010). Following Ælfric, the first entries in the Vocabularium Cornicum are Deus omnipotens, duy chefuidoc ‘almighty God’, Celum, nef ‘heaven’, Angelus, ail ‘angel’, Archangelus, archail ‘archangel’. The vocabulary then continues through the stages of the creation, including star, sun, moon, world, earth, sea and mankind. Then follow the parts of the body, the ranks of the church, members of the family, crafts and their implements, animals and plants, and household goods.

The idea of this essay occurred to me when I was screening all kinds of sources for my bibliography of English etymology (see Liberman 2010; by now it has grown quite considerably). Many valuable articles on word origins have appeared in the course of two centuries and a half in the transactions of various learned societies. They are hard to find, for such volumes may contain works on unrelated subjects, with etymology seldom being prominent in them. Two years ago, I discovered a paper by Albert Matthews, a distinguished student of American English, on the combination hired man and its synonyms (Matthews 1898). The paper referred to a letter exchange in The Nation. In the nineteenth century and later, this periodical accepted materials of linguistic interest with some regularity.

The initiator of the exchange was F[itzedward] H[all] (1896a), an authority on the history of English and English usage. His letter on the terms hired man (woman, girl), servant, and help elicited two responses that won't concern us, but in his second letter (Hall 1896b) he suggested that the phrase hired man had in the past been pronounced with a unifying stress (´hired man) and that it goes back to OE1 hīrēd man. Hīrēd meant ‘retinue, troop’, and hīrēd man signified ‘retainer’.

Hall's etymology struck me as indefensible, but it turned out that he was not even the first to offer it. Skeat suggested, though tentatively, the same derivation in 1882; yet he gave it up almost at once. After Skeat and Hall, Kaufmann (1910: 27, note 1) defended this idea. None of them knew that Minsheu (1617) had already made the connection between hire and hīrēd. Those who wrote etymological dictionaries after him and were in the habit of discussing the views of their predecessors did not cite Minsheu, and his conjecture fell by the wayside.

Evidently, hīrēd was a well-known word, for it made its way into Old Icelandic (hird) with the same meaning as in Old English. Its Old High German cognate was hirat, extant in the modern language as Heirat ‘marriage’ (< ‘household’, the noun's original sense). OE -rēd and OHG -rāt are allied, while hī- has been traced to *heiwa-‘family’, as in Go. heiwa-frauja ‘master of a house’.

Today, the Macedonian language is developing spontaneously. It is changing in accordance with the habits of interpersonal communication, and the number of authors and poets who write original works is increasing. However, it should be emphasized that this hastened development, is under constant linguistic and ethnic pressure, imposed by the Albanians. After the proclamation of independence in September 1991, the majority of the population was Macedonian, and spoke the Macedonian language, however, they represented just over 64% of the population in the Republic. Moreover, the Macedonian language is the main (official) language in the country, liberating itself, at least legally, from former Serbian domination, and today, it strives not to be subjected by anything.

Abstract

Of interest in this chapter is the search for the wider sourcing of creative ability because traditional methods have failed to solve a variety of problems – social, political, daily life, family, economic, cultural, and religious – which as unconventional and practical applications become innovations. How multidimensional the abilities to tackle them are also depends on the ability to develop innovation. In view of the growing importance of gender studies, the conditions indicated should include another one, namely gender. And the concept of Innovative Gender has been accepted, ascribing to women and men equal measure, opportunities and situations included in the model of the innovation genome. The starting point of the Innovative Gender study is to build four dedicated matrices filled with information (variables) describing a given area including gender, among which the crucial one is cooperation.

Key words: creativity, innovation, innovativeness, innovative gender

Introduction

In spite of the diagnosis that the European Union is burdened with a triple crisis – of substance, trust and power (Kukliński, 2011) – leading to its institutional weakening on the global stage as an innovator, the growing predominance of thinking via procedures, and the expansion of the overwhelming control limiting freedom of choice, more offensives and strategies to intensify the development of research and innovation in all Member States are constantly being created. The failure to achieve the goals of the Lisbon Strategy is explained by a lack of political will and the conviction of heads of state that the objectives were too ambitious and that they lacked a cohesive policy between the whole European Union and the strategies of individual Member States, which is further compounded by the poor state of public finances in many EU countries and the crisis of 2008. A kind of “extension” of the Lisbon strategy is the Europe 2020 Innovation Union, and in particular the use of the procedure to shift the trust and support of innovative activity to the regions. Will yet another programme free EU innovation from its “straitjacket” (Green Paper on Innovation, 1995)?

Etymologie du lat. Daps

Etude semantique et phraseologie

En propre, le lat. daps f. désigne un ‘festin de magnificence’ – c'1st à dire un banquet offert aux dieux, selon Benveniste (1969 i : 75 s. et ii : 226 s.). Le pluriel dapēs ‘festin’ revêt un sens augmentatif, à l'1nstar du gr. δεῖπνα ‘repas’ en regard du singulier δεῖπνον. C'1st aussi le cas du lat. epula f. pl. en regard du neutre epulum. On sait que l'1rm. ’nt‘ri-k’ ‘festin’ est un plurale tantum (Mc. 6, 21 : ’nt‘ri-s tayr « il donna un festin »). Le terme est ancien, et technique. Il fait ainsi l'1bjet d'1n lemme chez Festus :

Chez Caton, l'1n dit aussi bien dapem facere (passif : fierī) que dapem pollūcēre « offrir un sacrifice aux dieux » (tout deux gouvernant le datif du bénéficiaire). Les deux tours se surprennent dans le même passage consacré au sacrifice liquide (une coupe de vin) fait à Jupiter en tant que garant de la fertilité :

Macedonia is a multinational (dominated by a population composed of Macedonians and Albanians), multiethnic, multilingual (dominated by the Macedonian and Albanian languages) and multi-religious (dominated by Orthodox Christianity and Islam) country. Macedonians and Albanians, Turks, Roma, Aromanians and other national and ethnic groups live in this country with a population of two million. Macedonian is the official language used by the majority of the population in the state (70%). Albanian (25.17% of the population), along with the Turkish, Serbian and Croatian languages (during the reign of J. Broz Tito – Serbo-Croatian language) as well as other languages are also in use. Orthodox Christianity is the dominant religion (67% of the population); however, there is also a significant number of Muslims, who represent less than one third of the society. The Macedonian language belongs to the group of South-Slavic languages together with Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian and Slovenian. It is estimated that the Macedonian language in Macedonia, is spoken by 2 million out of 2.5 million people, together with the Macedonian emigration.

In the postwar history of the Macedonian language, the need of legal and grammatical status regulation and the destiny of the literary standard, greatly dependent on political motives, were expressed by the highest legislative bodies that strived towards its establishment. State committees that determined the Macedonian alphabet, and the basis for language development, were created. After World War II, when the Macedonian standard was established under the influence of the not so great, but highly influential elites, non-linguistic factors involved in the codification processes were obviously right. This was not so difficult when it came to that small South Slavic republic, subordinate to Belgrade until 1991.

The creation of the modern Macedonian state was related to three historical events, namely, the Balkan Wars (1912/1913), and the establishment (1943) and the breakup (1991) of the Yugoslav federation. As a result of the Balkan wars, the historical and geographical territory of Macedonia, heretofore belonging to the Turkish state, was divided between three states: Pirin Macedonia was attributed to Bulgaria, Aegean Macedonia to Greece and Vardar Macedonia to Serbia.