Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-25wd4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T00:10:26.414Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

30 - Anesthesia for the pre-eclamptic patient

from Part II - Clinical Practice

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 September 2009

By
Jose M. Rivers  and
Maya S. Suresh
Edited by
Fiona Lyall  and
Michael Belfort
Fiona Lyall
Affiliation:
University of Glasgow
Michael Belfort
Affiliation:
University of Utah
Get access

Summary

Hypertensive disease affects roughly 6–8% of all pregnancies and is the second leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality. It accounts for almost 15% of pregnancy-related maternal deaths, and is a major risk factor for fetal morbidity and mortality (Berg et al., 1996; Longo et al., 2003); there is also a substantial contribution to stillbirths, neonatal morbidity and mortality as a result of premature deliveries.

Terminology and classification

Historically, there have been varied and diverse terminologies used to describe hypertension during pregnancy. Previous terminology such as pregnancy-induced hypertension has been abandoned. The Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy (2000) has attempted to standardize the classification.

The currently accepted classification is as follows:

  • pre-eclampsia–eclampsia with or without HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count) syndrome;

  • pre-eclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension;

  • chronic hypertension; and

  • gestational hypertension.

Pre-eclampsia

Background

Unique to humans, pre-eclampsia is a multiorgan disease of unknown origin. Symptoms present themselves in a normotensive woman after the twentieth week of gestation. However, pre-eclampsia can occur in normotensive patients with trophoblastic disease (e.g. molar pregnancy) prior to the twentieth week (Ness and Roberts, 1996). The risk of developing pre-eclampsia is greater in women with pre-existing conditions such as chronic hypertension, diabetes, antiphospholipid syndrome and collagen vascular disease.

A detailed discussion of the etiology and pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia is beyond the scope of this chapter.

Type
Chapter
Information
Pre-eclampsia
Etiology and Clinical Practice
 , pp. 451 - 475
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarnoudse, J. G., Houthoff, H. J., Weits, J., Vellenga, E. and Huisjes, H. J. (1986). A syndrome of liver damage and intravascular coagulation in the last trimester of normotensive pregnancy. A clinical and histopathological study. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 93(2), 145–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abdelwahab, W., Frishman, W. and Landau, A. (1995). Management of hypertensive urgencies and emergencies. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 35(8), 747–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alderson, P, Schierhout, G. and Roberts, I. (2003). Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. The Cochrane Library Oxford: Update Software Issue, 1, 2003 (Cochrane review).Google Scholar
ASA. (1993). Practice guidelines for pulmonary artery catheterization. A report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Pulmonary Artery Catheterization. Anesthesiology, 78(2), 380–94.CrossRef
ASA. (in press). Practice Guidelines for Obstetrical Anesthesia. An updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Obstetrical Anesthesia. (Last amended 18 October 2006.)
Andropoulos, D. B., Stayer, S. A., Bent, S. T., et al. (1999). A controlled study of transesophageal echocardiography to guide central venous catheter placement in congenital heart surgery patients. Anesth. Analg., 89(1), 65–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Arias, F. and Mancilla-Jimenez, R. (1976). Hepatic fibrinogen deposits in pre-eclampsia. Immunofluorescent evidence. N. Engl. J. Med., 295(11), 578–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aya, A. G., Mangin, R., Vialles, N., et al. (2003). Patients with severe preeclampsia experience less hypotension during spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery than healthy parturients: a prospective cohort comparison. Anesth. Analg., 97(3), 867–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barton, J. R., Sibai, B. M., Ahokas, R. A., Whybrew, W. D. and Mercer, B. M. (1992). Magnesium sulfate therapy in preeclampsia is associated with increased urinary cyclic guanosine monophosphate excretion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167(4, Pt. 1), 931–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beilin, Y., Zahn, J. and Comerford, M. (1997). Safe epidural analgesia in thirty parturients with platelet counts between 69,000 and 98,000 mm−3. Anesth. Analg., 85(2), 385–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Belfort, M. A. (1995). Acute volume expansion with oxygen delivery and consumption but does not improve oxygen extraction in severe preeclapmsia. J. Matern. Fetal Med., 4, 57–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berg, C. J., Atrash, H. K., Koonin, L. M. and Tucker, M. (1996). Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 1987–1990. Obstet. Gynecol., 88(2), 161–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolte, A. C., Geijn, H. P. and Dekker, G. A. (2001). Management and monitoring of severe preeclampsia. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol., 96(1), 8–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, K. D., Thomas, S. J., Gold, J. and Boyd, A. D. (1983). A prospective study of complications of pulmonary artery catheterizations in 500 consecutive patients. Chest, 84(3), 245–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brimacombe, J. (2003). Acute pharyngolaryngeal oedema and preclamptic toxaemia. Anesth. Obstet., 20, 97.Google Scholar
Brock-Utne, J. G. (2003). Laryngeal oedema associated with pre-eclamptic toxaemia. Anaesthesia, 32, 556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bromage, P. R. (1993). Neurologic complications of regional anesthesia for obstetrics. Anesth. Obstet., 443–4.Google Scholar
Brown, M. A., Zammit, V. C. and Lowe, S. A. (1989). Capillary permeability and extracellular fluid volumes in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Clin. Sci. (Lond.), 77(6), 599–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, M. E. (1991). Hypertension in pregnancy. In: Critical Care Obstetrics, ed. Harvey, C.. Gaithersburg, Aspen.Google Scholar
Burrows, R. F., Hunter, D. J., Andrew, M. and Kelton, J. G. (1987). A prospective study investigating the mechanism of thrombocytopenia in preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol., 70(3, Pt. 1), 334–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Busse, R. (1987). Endothelium-derived relaxant factor inhibits platelet activation. Arch. Pharm., 366(5), 566–71.Google Scholar
Campbell, D. M. (2003). Evans blue disappearance rate in normal and preeclamptic pregnancy. Clin. Exp. Hypertens., 2(1), 163–9.Google Scholar
Chadwick, H. D., Wall, M. H. and Chandler, W. (1993). Thromboelastography in mild and severe pre-eclampsia. Anesthesiology, 79, A992. Ref. Type: Abstract.Google Scholar
Chang, A. B. (2004). Physiologic changes of pregnancy. In: Obstetric Anesthesia, Principles and Practice (3rd edn), ed. Chestnut, D. H.. St Louis, Mosby.Google Scholar
Channing-Rodgers, R. P. (2003). A critical reappraisal of the bleeding time. Semin. Thromb. Hemost., 16(1), 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, S. L. and Cotton, D. B. (1988). Clinical indications for pulmonary artery catheterization in the patient with severe preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 158(3, Pt. 1), 453–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, S. L., Greenspoon, J. S., Aldahl, D. and Phelan, J. P. (1986). Severe preeclampsia with persistent oliguria: management of hemodynamic subsets. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 154(3), 490–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, S. L., Cotton, D. B., Lee, W., et al. (1989). Central hemodynamic assessment of normal term pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 161(6, Pt. 1), 1439–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cochrane Injuries Group Albumin Reviewers. (1998). Human albumin administration in critical patients:systemic review of randomized trials. Br. J. Anaesth., 317, 235–40.
Collop, N. A. and Sahn, S. A. (1993). Critical illness in pregnancy. An analysis of 20 patients admitted to a medical intensive care unit. Chest, 103(5), 1548–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connors, A. F. Jr., Speroff, T., Dawson, N. V., et al. (1996). The effectiveness of right heart catheterization in the initial care of critically ill patients. SUPPORT Investigators. J. Am. Med. Ass., 276(11), 889–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, D. H. and Wadsworth, R. (1999). Portable ultrasound for central venous cannulation. Br. J. Anaesth., 83(6), 964.Google ScholarPubMed
Costabile, G. (2003). Spinal epidural hematoma. Surg. Neurol., 21, 489–92. Ref. Type: Abstract.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cotton, D. B., Gonik, B. and Dorman, K. F. (1985). Cardiovascular alterations in severe pregnancy-induced hypertension seen with an intravenously given hydralazine bolus. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet., 161(3), 240–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Cotton, D. B., Longmire, S., Jones, M. M., Dorman, K. F., Tessem, J. and Joyce, T. H. III. (1986). Cardiovascular alterations in severe pregnancy-induced hypertension: effects of intravenous nitroglycerin coupled with blood volume expansion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 154(5), 1053–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotton, D. B., Lee, W., Huhta, J. C. and Dorman, K. F. (1988). Hemodynamic profile of severe pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 158(3, Pt. 1), 523–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crosby, E. T. (1991). Obstetrical anaesthesia for patients with the syndrome of haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelets. Can. J. Anaesth., 38(2), 227–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadak, C., Ulrich, W. and Sinzinger, H. (1984). Morphological changes in the umbilical arteries of babies born to pre-eclamptic mothers: an ultrastructural study. Placenta, 5(5), 419–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, M. J., Cronin, K. D. and Domaingue, C. M. (1982). Pulmonary artery catheterisation. An assessment of risks and benefits in 220 surgical patients. Anaesth. Int. Care, 10(1), 9–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Belder, A., Lees, C., Martin, J., Moncada, S. and Campbell, S. (1995). Treatment of HELLP syndrome with nitric oxide donor. Lancet, 345(8942), 124–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dekker, G. A. and Sibai, B. M. (1993). Low-dose aspirin in the prevention of preeclampsia and fetal growth retardation: rationale, mechanisms, and clinical trials. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 168(1, Pt. 1), 214–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dekker, G. A. and Sibai, B. M. (1998). Etiology and pathogenesis of preeclampsia: current concepts. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 179(5), 1359–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lange, J. J., Stamenkovic, L. and Otter, G. (1979). Pulmonary circulation pressures in surgical patients. The use of the Swan–Ganz catheter. Arch. Chir. Neerl., 31(1), 17–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Denys, B. G., Uretsky, B. F., Reddy, P. S., Ruffner, R. J., Sandhu, J. S. and Breishlatt, W. M. (1991). An ultrasound method for safe and rapid central venous access. N. Engl. J. Med., 324(8), 566.Google ScholarPubMed
Denys, B. G., Uretsky, B. F. and Reddy, P. S. (1993). Ultrasound-assisted cannulation of the internal jugular vein. A prospective comparison to the external landmark-guided technique. Circulation, 87(5), 1557–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dizon-Townson, D. S., Nelson, L. M., Easton, K. and Ward, K. (1996). The factor V Leiden mutation may predispose women to severe preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 175(4, Pt. 1), 902–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dobb, G. (1978). Laryngeal oedema complicating obstetric anaesthesia. Anaesthesia, 33(9), 839–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebert, R. J. (2003). Post partum airway obstruction after vaginal delivery. Anaesth. Int. Care, 20, 365.Google Scholar
Elliott, C. G., Zimmerman, G. A. and Clemmer, T. P. (1979). Complications of pulmonary artery catheterization in the care of critically ill patients. A prospective study. Chest, 76(6), 647–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, S. C., Wheeler, A. S., James, F. M. III, et al. (1982). Fetal and maternal effects of sodium nitroprusside used to counteract hypertension in gravid ewes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 143(7), 766–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farcon, E. L., Kim, M. H. and Marx, G. F. (1994). Changing Mallampati score during labour. Can. J. Anaesth., 41(1), 50–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fournie, A., Monrozies, M., Pontonnier, G., Boneu, B. and Bierme, R. (1981). Factor VIII complex in normal pregnancy, pre-eclampsia and fetal growth retardation. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 88(3), 250–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freidman, S. A. (2003). Pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Clin. Perinatol., 18(4), 661–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gambling, D. R. (2003). Epidural infusion in labour should be abandoned in favour of patient-controlled epidural analgesia. Int. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 5, 59–63.Google Scholar
Gambling, D. R. (2004). Hypertensive disorder. In: Obstetric Anesthesia, Principles and Practice (3rd edn), ed. Chestnut, D. H.. St Louis, Mosby.Google Scholar
Ghoneim, M. M. and Long, J. P. (1970). The interaction between magnesium and other neuromuscular blocking agents. Anesthesiology, 32(1), 23–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giles, C. and Inglis, T. C. (1981). Thrombocytopenia and macrothrombocytosis in gestational hypertension. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 88(11), 1115–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gill, J. B. (2003). Prospective study of pulmonary artery balloon flotation catheter insertions. J. Int. Care Med., 3, 121–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grisaru, D., Zwang, E., Peyser, M. R., Lessing, J. B. and Eldor, A. (1997). The procoagulant activity of red blood cells from patients with severe preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 177(6), 1513–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harnett, M. J., Datta, S. and Bhavani-Shankar, K. (2001). The effect of magnesium on coagulation in parturients with preeclampsia. Anesth. Analg., 92(5), 1257–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, J. L., Koonin, L. M., Palmer, S. K. and Gibbs, C. P. (1997). Anesthesia-related deaths during obstetric delivery in the United States, 1979–1990. Anesthesiology, 86(2), 277–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heller, P. J., Scheider, E. P. and Marx, G. F. (1983). Pharyngolaryngeal edema as a presenting symptom in preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol., 62(4), 523–5.Google ScholarPubMed
Hew-Wing, P., Rolbin, S. H., Hew, E. and Amato, D. (1989). Epidural anaesthesia and thrombocytopenia. Anaesthesia, 44(9), 775–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hjertberg, R., Belfrage, P. and Hagnevik, K. (1991). Hemodynamic measurements with Swan-Ganz catheter in women with severe proteinuric gestational hypertension (pre-eclampsia). Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 70(3), 193–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgkinson, R., Husain, F. J. and Hayashi, R. H. (1980). Systemic and pulmonary blood pressure during caesarean section in parturients with gestational hypertension. Can. Anaesth. Soc. J., 27(4), 389–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hood, D. D. and Curry, R. (1999). Spinal versus epidural anesthesia for cesarean section in severely preeclamptic patients: a retrospective survey. Anesthesiology, 90(5), 1276–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horst, H. M., Obeid, F. N., Vij, D. and Bivins, B. A. (1984). The risks of pulmonary arterial catheterization. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet., 159(3), 229–32.Google ScholarPubMed
Inglis, T. C., Stuart, J., George, A. J. and Davies, A. J. (1982). Haemostatic and rheological changes in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Haematol., 50(3), 461–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joupilla, R. (2003). Laryngeal oedema as an obstetric anaesthesia complication. Acta Anaesth. Scand., 24, 97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jouppila, P., Kuikka, J., Jouppila, R. and Hollmen, A. (1979). Effect of induction of general anesthesia for cesarean section on intervillous blood flow. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 58(3), 249–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jouppila, P., Jouppila, R., Hollmen, A. and Koivula, A. (1982). Lumbar epidural analgesia to improve intervillous blood flow during labor in severe preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol., 59(2), 158–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Jouppila, P., Kirkinen, P., Koivula, A. and Ylikorkala, O. (1985). Effects of dihydralazine infusion on the fetoplacental blood flow and maternal prostanoids. Obstet. Gynecol., 65(1), 115–18.Google ScholarPubMed
Kambam, J. R., Handte, R. E., Brown, W. U. and Smith, B. E. (1986). Effect of normal and preeclamptic pregnancies on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. Anesthesiology, 65(4), 426–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kambam, J. R., Mouton, S., Entman, S., Sastry, B. V. and Smith, B. E. (1987). Effect of pre-eclampsia on plasma cholinesterase activity. Can. J. Anaesth., 34(5), 509–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kambam, J. R., Entman, S., Mouton, S. and Smith, B. E. (1988a). Effect of preeclampsia on carboxyhemoglobin levels: a mechanism for a decrease in P50. Anesthesiology, 68(3), 433–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kambam, J. R., Perry, S. M., Entman, S. and Smith, B. E. (1988b). Effect of magnesium on plasma cholinesterase activity. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 159(2), 309–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karinen, J., Rasanen, J., Alahuhta, S., Jouppila, R. and Jouppila, P. (1996). Maternal and uteroplacental haemodynamic state in pre-eclamptic patients during spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Br. J. Anaesth., 76(5), 616–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, J. D., Cronau, L. H., Barash, P. G. and Mandel, S. D. (1977). Pulmonary artery flow-guided catheters in the perioperative period. Indications and complications. J. Am. Med. Ass., 237(26), 2832–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelso, L. A. (1997). Complications associated with pulmonary artery catheterization. New. Horiz., 5(3), 259–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Kelton, J. G., Hunter, D. J. and Neame, P. B. (1985). A platelet function defect in preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol., 65(1), 107–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Kilby, M. D., Broughton, P. F. and Symonds, E. M. (1993). Changes in platelet intracellular free calcium in normal pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 100(4), 375–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurzel, R. B., Au, A. H. and Rooholamini, S. A. (1996). Doppler velocimetry of hepatic blood flow in postpartum patients with HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets). Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 175(6), 1677–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazarchick, J., Stubbs, T. M., Romein, L., Dorsten, J. P. and Loadholt, C. B. (1986). Predictive value of fibronectin levels in normotensive gravid women destined to become preeclamptic. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 154(5), 1050–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lind, S. E. (1991). The bleeding time does not predict surgical bleeding. Blood, 77(12), 2547–52.Google Scholar
Lipshitz, J., Ahokas, R. A. and Reynolds, S. L. (1987). The effect of hydralazine on placental perfusion in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 156(2), 356–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Locke, G. E., Giorgio, A. J., Biggers, S. L. Jr., Johnson, A. P. and Salem, F. (1976). Acute spinal epidural hematoma secondary to aspirin-induced prolonged bleeding. Surg. Neurol., 5(5), 293–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Longo, S. A., Dola, C. P. and Pridjian, G. (2003). Preeclampsia and eclampsia revisited. South. Med. J., 96(9), 891–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lunell, N. O., Lewander, R., Nylund, L., Sarby, B. and Thornstrom, S. (1983). Acute effect of dihydralazine on uteroplacental blood flow in hypertension during pregnancy. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest., 16(5), 274–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyall, F. (2003). A multi-faceted vascular disorder of pregnancy. J. Hypertens., 12, 1339–45.Google Scholar
Mabie, W. C., Gonzalez, A. R., Sibai, B. M. and Amon, E. (1987). A comparative trial of labetalol and hydralazine in the acute management of severe hypertension complicating pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol., 70(3, Pt. 1), 328–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Mabie, W. C., Ratts, T. E., Ramanathan, K. B. and Sibai, B. M. (1988). Circulatory congestion in obese hypertensive women: a subset of pulmonary edema in pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol., 72(4), 553–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Mabie, W. C., Ratts, T. E. and Sibai, B. M. (1989). The central hemodynamics of severe preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 161(6, Pt. 1), 1443–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manas, K. J., Welsh, J. D., Rankin, R. A. and Miller, D. D. (1985). Hepatic hemorrhage without rupture in pre-eclampsia. N. Engl. J. Med., 312(7), 424–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, J. N. Jr., Blake, P. G., Perry, K. G.Jr, ., McCaul, J. F., Hess, L. W. and Martin, R. W. (1991). The natural history of HELLP syndrome: patterns of disease progression and regression. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 164(6, Pt. 1), 1500–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matteo, R., Proverbio, T., Cordova, K., Proverbio, F. and Marin, R. (1998). Preeclampsia, lipid peroxidation, and calcium adenosine triphosphatase activity of red blood cell ghosts. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 178(2), 402–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maynard, J. R., Dreyer, B. E., Stemerman, M. B. and Pitlick, F. A. (1977). Tissue-factor coagulant activity of cultured human endothelial and smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Blood, 50(3), 387–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Morgan, M. A., Silavin, S. L., Dormer, K. J., Fishburne, B. C. and Fishburne, J. I. Jr. (1993). Effects of labetalol on uterine blood flow and cardiovascular hemodynamics in the hypertensive gravid baboon. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 168(5), 1574–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, R. H., Vassalli, P., Beller, F. K. and McCluskey, R. T. (1964). Immunofluorescent studies of renal biopsies in the diagnosis of toxemia of pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol., 24, 32–46.Google Scholar
Naulty, J. (2003). Fetal toxicity of nitroprusside in the pregnant. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 130, 708–11.Google Scholar
Nehme, A. E. (1980). Swan–Ganz catheter: comparison of insertion techniques. Arch. Surg., 115(10), 1194–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, S. H. (2003). Endothelium-dependent increase in sensitivity to acetylcholine (ACH) in human uterine arteries during pregnancy. Blood Vessels, 24, 218–19.Google Scholar
Ness, R. B. and Roberts, J. M. (1996). Heterogeneous causes constituting the single syndrome of preeclampsia: a hypothesis and its implications. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 175(5), 1365–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newsome, L. R., Bramwell, R. S. and Curling, P. E. (1986). Severe preeclampsia: hemodynamic effects of lumbar epidural anesthesia. Anesth. Analg., 65(1), 31–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterhof, H., Voorhoeve, P. G. and Aarnoudse, J. G. (1994). Enhancement of hepatic artery resistance to blood flow in preeclampsia in presence or absence of HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets). Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 171(2), 526–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orlikowski, C. E., Payne, A. J., Moodley, J. and Rocke, D. A. (1992). Thromboelastography after aspirin ingestion in pregnant and non-pregnant subjects. Br. J. Anaesth., 69(2), 159–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orlikowski, C. E., Rocke, D. A., Murray, W. B., et al. (1996). Thromboelastography changes in pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Br. J. Anaesth., 77(2), 157–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perry, K. G. Jr. and Martin, J. N.Jr, . (1992). Abnormal hemostasis and coagulopathy in preeclampsia and eclampsia. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol., 35(2), 338–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pilkington, S. (2003). Increase in Mallampati score during pregnancy. Br. J. Anaesth., 74, 638–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polanczyk, C. A., Rohde, L. E., Goldman, L., et al. (2001). Right heart catheterization and cardiac complications in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: an observational study. J. Am. Med. Ass., 286(3), 309–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Procter, A. J. and White, J. B. (1983). Laryngeal oedema in pregnancy. Anaesthesia, 38(2), 167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, J. (2003). Preeclampsia: fluids, drugs and anesthetic management. Anesth. Clin. N. Amer., 21, 145–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, J., Sibai, B. M., Pillai, R. and Angel, J. J. (1988a). Neuromuscular transmission studies in pre-eclamptic women receiving magnesium sulfate. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 158(1), 40–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanathan, J., Sibai, B. M., Mabie, W. C., Chauhan, D. and Ruiz, A. G. (1988b). The use of labetalol for attenuation of the hypertensive response to endotracheal intubation in preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 159(3), 650–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanathan, J., Sibai, B. M., Vu, T. and Chauhan, D. (1989). Correlation between bleeding times and platelet counts in women with preeclampsia undergoing cesarean section. Anesthesiology, 71(2), 188–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, J., Coleman, P. and Sibai, B. (1991). Anesthetic modification of hemodynamic and neuroendocrine stress responses to cesarean delivery in women with severe preeclampsia. Anesth. Analg., 73(6), 772–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, J., Vaddadi, A. K. and Arheart, K. L. (2001). Combined spinal and epidural anesthesia with low doses of intrathecal bupivacaine in women with severe preeclampsia: a preliminary report. Reg. Anesth. Pain. Med., 26(1), 46–51.Google ScholarPubMed
Rappaport, V. J., Hirata, G., Yap, H. K. and Jordan, S. C. (1990). Anti-vascular endothelial cell antibodies in severe preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 162(1), 138–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rasmus, K. T., Rottman, R. L., Kotelko, D. M., Wright, W. C., Stone, J. J. and Rosenblatt, R. M. (1989). Unrecognized thrombocytopenia and regional anesthesia in parturients: a retrospective review. Obstet. Gynecol., 73(6), 943–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Redman, C. W. (1991). Immunology of preeclampsia. Semin. Perinatol., 15(3), 257–62.Google ScholarPubMed
Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy. (2000). Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 183(1), S1–22.CrossRef
Rees, G. B., Pipkin, F. B., Symonds, E. M. and Patrick, J. M. (1990). A longitudinal study of respiratory changes in normal human pregnancy with cross-sectional data on subjects with pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 162(3), 826–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, A., Graham, D. and Bullock, R. (1988). Clinicopathological study of neurological complications due to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 51(3), 416–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, J. M., Taylor, R. N., Musci, T. J., Rodgers, G. M., Hubel, C. A. and McLaughlin, M. K. (1989). Preeclampsia: an endothelial cell disorder. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 161(5), 1200–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, W. B., Brosens, I. and Dixon, G. (1975). Uteroplacental vascular pathology. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol., 5(1–2), 47–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rocke, D. A. and Scoones, G. P. (1992). Rapidly progressive laryngeal oedema associated with pregnancy-aggravated hypertension. Anaesthesia, 47(2), 141–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, R. C., Sibai, B. M. and Whybrew, W. D. (1990). Labetalol pharmacokinetics in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 162(2), 362–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolbin, S. H., Abbott, D., Musclow, E., Papsin, F., Lie, L. M. and Freedman, J. (1988). Epidural anesthesia in pregnant patients with low platelet counts. Obstet. Gynecol., 71(6, Pt. 1), 918–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Rosenwasser, R. H., Jallo, J. I., Getch, C. C. and Liebman, K. E. (1995). Complications of Swan–Ganz catheterization for hemodynamic monitoring in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery, 37(5), 872–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, R. and Reynolds, F. (1996). Epidural infusion of low-dose bupivacaine and opioid in labour. Does reducing motor block increase the spontaneous delivery rate?Anaesthesia, 51(3), 266–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samuels, P., Main, E. K., Tomaski, A., Mennuti, M. T., Gabbe, S. G. and Cines, D. B. (1987). Abnormalities in platelet antiglobulin tests in preeclamptic mothers and their neonates. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 157(1), 109–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sattar, N., Gaw, A., Packard, C. J. and Greer, I. A. (1996). Potential pathogenic roles of aberrant lipoprotein and fatty acid metabolism in pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 103(7), 614–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scholtes, M. C., Gerretsen, G. and Haak, H. L. (1983). The factor VIII ratio in normal and pathological pregnancies. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol., 16(2), 89–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seager, S. J. and Macdonald, R. (1980). Laryngeal oedema and pre-eclampsia. Anaesthesia, 35(4), 360–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shah, K. B., Rao, T. L., Laughlin, S. and El Etr, A. A. (1984). A review of pulmonary artery catheterization in 6,245 patients. Anesthesiology, 61(3), 271–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibai, B. M. (1996). Treatment of hypertension in pregnant women. N. Engl. J. Med., 335(4), 257–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibai, B. (2003). The case for magnesium sulfate in preclampsia–eclampsia. Int. J. Obstet. Anaesth., 1, 167–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sibai, B. M. and Cartis, P. E. (1993). Prevention of preeclampsia: low dose aspirin in nulliparous women – a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am. J. Obstet., 168, 286. Ref. Type: Abstract.Google Scholar
Sibai, B. M., Ramadan, M. K., Usta, I., Salama, M., Mercer, B. M. and Friedman, S. A. (1993). Maternal morbidity and mortality in 442 pregnancies with hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP syndrome). Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 169(4), 1000–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sipes, S. L., Weiner, C. P., Gellhaus, T. M. and Goodspeed, J. D. (1989). The plasma renin–angiotensin system in preeclampsia: effects of magnesium sulfate. Obstet. Gynecol., 73(6), 934–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Sise, M. J., Hollingsworth, P., Brimm, J. E., Peters, R. M., Virgilio, R. W. and Shackford, S. R. (1981). Complications of the flow-directed pulmonary artery catheter: a prospective analysis in 219 patients. Crit. Care Med., 9(4), 315–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, S. W. and Cardwell, M. S. (1989). Neuromuscular blockade with magnesium sulfate and nifedipine. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 161(1), 35–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spargo, G. H. (1976). The renal lesion in preeclampsia. In Hypertension in Pregnancy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 129–37.Google Scholar
Stacey, R. G., Watt, S., Kadim, M. Y. and Morgan, B. M. (1993). Single space combined spinal-extradural technique for analgesia in labour. Br. J. Anaesth., 71(4), 499–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stricker, R. B., Main, E. K., Kronfield, J., et al. (1992). Severe post-partum eclampsia: response to plasma exchange. J. Clin. Apheresis, 7(1), 1–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suresh, M. S. (2003). Difficult airway in the parturient. In Problems in Anesthesia, ed. Ovassapian, A. and Coalson, D. W.. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc., pp. 88–99.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. N., Casal, D. C., Jones, L. A., Varma, M., Martin, J. N. Jr. and Roberts, J. M. (1991). Selective effects of preeclamptic sera on human endothelial cell procoagulant protein expression. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 165(6, Pt. 1), 1705–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tillman Hein, H. A. (2003). Cardiorespiratory arrest with laryngeal oedema in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Can. Anaesth. Soc. J., 31, 210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trofatter, K. F. Jr., Howell, M. L., Greenberg, C. S. and Hage, M. L. (1989). Use of the fibrin D-dimer in screening for coagulation abnormalities in preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol., 73(3, Pt. 1), 435–40.Google ScholarPubMed
Troianos, C. A., Kuwik, R. J., Pasqual, J. R., Lim, A. J. and Odasso, D. P. (1996). Internal jugular vein and carotid artery anatomic relation as determined by ultrasonography. Anesthesiology, 85(1), 43–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trudinger, B. J. and Cook, C. M. (1990). Doppler umbilical and uterine flow waveforms in severe pregnancy hypertension. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 97(2), 142–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vane, J. R., Anggard, E. E. and Botting, R. M. (1990). Regulatory functions of the vascular endothelium. N. Engl. J. Med., 323(1), 27–36.Google ScholarPubMed
Verghese, S. T., McGill, W. A., Patel, R. I., Sell, J. E., Midgley, F. M. and Ruttimann, U. E. (1999). Ultrasound-guided internal jugular venous cannulation in infants: a prospective comparison with the traditional palpation method. Anesthesiology, 91(1), 71–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vink, G. J. and Moodley, J. (1982). The effect of low-dose dihydralazine on the fetus in the emergency treatment of hypertension in pregnancy. S. Afr. Med. J., 62(14), 475–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Voulgaropoulos, D. S. and Palmer, C. M. (1993). Coagulation studies in the preeclamptic parturient: a survey. J. Clin. Anesth., 5(2), 99–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, D. H., Leveno, K. J., Cunningham, F. G., Giesecke, A. H., Shearer, V. E. and Sidawi, J. E. (1995). Randomized comparison of general and regional anesthesia for cesarean delivery in pregnancies complicated by severe preeclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol., 86(2), 193–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, K. V., Moldow, C. F., Ogburn, P. L. and Jacob, H. S. (1986). Magnesium sulfate: rationale for its use in preeclampsia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 83(4), 1075–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinstein, L. (1985). Preeclampsia/eclampsia with hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and thrombocytopenia. Obstet. Gynecol., 66(5), 657–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Young, P. and Johanson, R. (2001). Haemodynamic, invasive and echocardiographic monitoring in the hypertensive parturient. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol., 15(4), 605–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, P. F., Leighton, N. A., Jones, P. W., Anthony, J. and Johanson, R. B. (2000). Fluid management in severe preeclampsia (VESPA): survey of members of ISSHP. Hypertens. Pregn., 19(3), 249–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zunker, P., Ley-Pozo, J., Louwen, F., Schuierer, G., Holzgreve, W. and Ringelstein, E. B. (1995). Cerebral hemodynamics in pre-eclampsia/eclampsia syndrome. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol., 6(6), 411–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuspan, F. P. (1991). New concepts in the understanding of hypertensive diseases during pregnancy. An overview. Clin. Perinatol., 18(4), 653–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×