Annual Reports. Reports of the Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board to the Administrator of Natal. Unpublished reports, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Boshoff, A. F. & Kerley, G. I. H. (2013) Historical incidence of the larger mammals in the Free State Province (South Africa) and Lesotho. Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth.Google Scholar

Brooks, P. M. & Macdonald, I. A. W. (1983) The Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Reserve: an ecological case history. In: Management of large mammals in African conservation areas (ed. Owen-Smith, R. N.), pp. 51–77. Haum, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Brooks, S. J. (2001) A critical historical geography of the Umfolozi and Hluhluwe Game Reserves, Zululand, 1887–1947. PhD thesis, Queens University, Canada.Google Scholar

Clark, J. L. & Plug, I. (2008) Animal exploitation strategies during the South African Middle Stone Age: Howieson's Poort and post-Howieson's Poort fauna from Sibudu Cave. Journal of Human Evolution 54: 886–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cowles, R. B. (1959) Zulu journal. Field notes of a naturalist in South Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Deacon, H. J. & Deacon, J. (1999) Human beginnings in South Africa: uncovering the secrets of the Stone Age. David Philip, Cape Town.Google Scholar

Delegorgue, A. (1847) Voyage dans l'Afrique Australe, reproduced as Adulphe Delegorgue's travels in Southern Africa, Vol. 1 (F. Webb. (transl.), Alexander, S. J. & Webb, C. de B. (eds), 1990). University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Ellis, B. (1994) Game conservation in Zululand, 1824–1947. Natalia: Journal of the Natal Society 23/24: 27–44. Available at natalia.org.za.Google Scholar

Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife (2011) Integrated management plan: Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, South Africa. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Feely, J. M. (1980) Did Iron Age man have a role in the history of Zululand's wilderness landscapes? South African Journal of Science 76: 150–152.Google Scholar

Feely, J. M. (2004) Prehistoric use of woodland and forest by farming peoples in South Africa. In: Indigenous forests and woodlands in South Africa: policy, people and practice (eds. Lawes, M. J., Eeley, H. A. C., Shackleton, C. M., & Geach, B. G. S.), pp. 284–286. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Fynn, H. F. (1950) The diary of Henry Francis Fynn, compiled from original sources and edited by Stuart, J. and Malcolm, D. McK.. Shuter & Shooter, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1977) Shaka's pitfall traps: hunting technique in the Zulu Kingdom. Annals of the Natal Museum 23: 1–12.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1979a) A list of known Iron Age archaeological sites in the Umfolozi, Corridor and Hluhluwe Reserves. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1979b) The Umfolozi, Hluhluwe and Corridor reserves during the Iron Age. The Lammergeyer 27: 28–40.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1980) An iron-smelting site in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Zululand. Annals of the Natal Museum 24: 165–175.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1981) Settlement patterns in the Iron Age of Zululand: an ecological interpretation. Cambridge monographs in African archaeology, Volume 5. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1984) Prehistoric farming in the Mfolozi and Hluhluwe valleys of southeast Africa: an archaeo-botanical survey. Journal of Archaeological Science 11: 223–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hall, M. (1987) The changing past: farmers, kings and traders in southern Africa, 200–1860. David Phillip, Cape Town.Google Scholar

Herman, L. & Kirby, P. R. (1970) Travels and adventure in eastern Africa: descriptive of the Zoolus, their manners, customs, with a sketch of Natal, by Nathaniel Isaacs. Struik, Cape Town.Google Scholar

Huffman, T. N. (2007) Handbook to the Iron Age: the archaeology of pre-colonial farming societies in southern Africa. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Isherwood, H. B. (2002) Umfolozi-Hluhluwe Game Reserve and adjoining State land. Unpublished report to Director: Survey Services.Google Scholar

Jewitt, D., Goodman, P. S., Erasmus, B. F. N., O'Connor, T. G., & Witkowski, E. T. F. (2015) Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for biodiversity. South African Journal of Science 111: 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kingdon, J. (2003) Lowly origin: where, when and why our ancestors first stood up. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Laband, J. (1995) Rope of sand: the rise and fall of the Zulu Kingdom in the nineteenth century. Jonathan Ball, Johannesburg.Google Scholar

Macdonald, I. A. W. (1983) Alien trees, shrubs and creepers invading indigenous vegetation in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve Complex in Natal. Bothalia 14: 949–959.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maggs, T. (1984) The Iron Age sequence south of the Zambezi. In: Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments (ed. Klein, R. G.), pp. 329–359. Balkema, Rotterdam.Google Scholar

McCracken, D. P. (2008) Saving the Zululand wilderness. An early struggle for nature conservation. Jacana Media, Johannesburg.Google Scholar

Mentis, M. T. (1970) Estimates of natural biomasses of large herbivores in the Umfolozi Game Reserve area. Mammalia 34: 363–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mitchell, P. (2002) The archaeology of southern Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar

Penner, D. (1970) Archaeological survey in Zululand game reserves. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Player, I. C. & Feely, J. M. (1960) A preliminary report on the square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). The Lammergeyer 1: 3–24.Google Scholar

Player, I. C. (1997) Zululand wilderness: shadow and soul. David Philip, Cape Town.Google Scholar

Plug, I. (2004) Resource exploitation: animal use during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science 100: 151–158.Google Scholar

Porter, R. N. (1981) A preliminary impact assessment of the environmental effects of proposed dams in the Mfolozi catchment, Natal. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietmaritzburg.Google Scholar

Pringle, J. A. (1982) The conservationists and the killers: the story of game protection and the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa. T. V. Bulpin and Books of Africa, Cape Town.Google Scholar

Prins, F. E. (1996) Aspects of Iron Age ecology in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu/Natal. In: The growth of farming communities in Africa from the equator southwards (ed. Sutton, J. E. G.), pp. 71–90. Azania special volume 12.Google Scholar

Van Wyk, B. E. & Gericke, N. (2000) People's plants: a guide to useful plants of southern Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Vernon, G. N. (2013) Even the cows were amazed: shipwreck survivors in south-east Africa 1552–1782. Jacana Press, Johannesburg.Google Scholar

Vincent, J. (1970) The history of Umfolozi Game Reserve, Zululand, as it relates to management. Lammergeyer 11: 7–49.Google Scholar

Vincent, J. & Porter, R. N. (1979) The boundaries of Hluhluwe–Corridor–Umfolozi (Central Complex) and the background to their present situation. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Wadley, L., Sievers, C., Bamford, M., et al. (2011) Middle Stone Age bedding construction and settlement patterns at Sibudu, South Africa. Science 334: 1388–1391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Walker, B. H., Emslie, R. H., Owen-Smith, N., & Scholes, R. J. (1987) To cull or not to cull: lessons from a southern African drought. Journal of Applied Ecology 24: 381–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ward, C. J. (1961) Burning as it affects veld management policy of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Whitelaw, G. (1994) KwaGandaganda: settlement patterns in the Natal Early Iron Age. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities 6: 1–64.Google Scholar

Wright, J. (2008) Rediscovering the Ndwandwe kingdom. In: Five hundred years rediscovered: southern African precedents and prospects (eds. Swanepoel, N., Esterhuysen, A., & Bonner, P.), pp. 217–235. Wits University Press, Johannesburg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Acocks, J. P. H. (1988) Veld types of South Africa. Botanical Research Institute, South Africa.Google Scholar

Balfour, D. A. & Howison, O. E. (2001) Spatial and temporal variation in a mesic savanna fire regime: responses to variation in annual rainfall. African Journal of Range & Forage Science 19: 43–51.Google Scholar

Cramer, M. D. & Bond, W. J. (2013) N-fertilization does not alleviate grass competition induced reduction of growth of African savanna species. Plant and Soil 366: 563–574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Downing, B. H. (1980) Relationships between rock substrate, landform and soil in Umfolozi Game Reserve, as explained for conservation purposes. Lammergeyer 30: 32–48.Google Scholar

du Toit, J. T., Rogers, K. F., & Biggs, H. C. (2003) The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington.Google Scholar

Fey, M. (2010) Soils of South Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Huntley, B. J. & Walker, B. H. (1982) Ecology of tropical savannas. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

King, L. (1982) The Natal monocline: explaining the origin and scenery of Natal, South Africa. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Mucina, L. & Rutherford, M. C. (2006) The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Nevill, E. M. (1908) The rainfall in Natal. Agricultural Journal of Natal 11: 1531–1533.Google Scholar

Nicholson, S. E. & Kim, J. (1997) The relationship of the El Nino–Southern oscillation to African rainfall. International Journal of Climatology 17: 117–135.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Partridge, T. C. (1998) Of diamonds, dinosaurs and diastrophism; 150 million years of landscape evolution in southern Africa. South African Journal of Geology 101: 167–184.Google Scholar

Sankaran, M., Hanan, N. P., Scholes, R. J., et al. (2005) Determinants of woody cover in savannas. Nature 438: 846–849.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

SCWG (1991) Soil classification: a taxonomic system for South Africa. SIRI: Department of Agricultural Development, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Sinclair, A. R. E. & Norton-Griffiths, M. (1979) Serengeti, dynamics of an ecosystem. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar

Tyson, P. D. & Dyer, T. G. J. (1980) The likelihood of droughts in the 80s in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 76: 340–341.Google Scholar

Venter, F. J. (1986) Soil patterns associated with the major geological units of the Kruger National Park. Koedoe 29: 125–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Venter, F. J., Scholes, R. J., & Eckhardt, H. (2003) The abiotic template and its associated vegetation pattern. In: The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity (eds. du Toit, J. T., Rogers, K. F., & Biggs, H. C.), pp. 83–129. Island Press, Washington.Google Scholar

Whateley, A. & Porter, R. N. (1983) The woody vegetation communities of the Hluhluwe–Corridor–Umfolozi Game Reserve Complex. Bothalia 14: 745–758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aitken, R. D. & Gale, G. W. (1921) Botanical survey of Natal and Zululand. Botanical survey of South Africa, Memoir No. 2. The Government Printing and Stationery Office, Pretoria.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ambrose, S. & Sikes, N. (1991) Soil carbon isotope evidence for Holocene habitat change in the Kenya Rift Valley. Science 253: 1402–1405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Attwell, R. I. G. (1948) Last strongholds of rhinoceros. African Wild Life 2: 34–52.Google Scholar

Baker, A., Routh, J., Blaauw, M., & Roychoudhury, A. N. (2014) Geochemical records of palaeoenvironmental controls on peat forming processes in the Mfabeni peatland, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa since the Late Pleistocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 395: 95–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Balfour, D. & Howison, O. (2002) Spatial and temporal variation in a mesic savanna fire regime: responses to variation in annual rainfall. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 19: 45–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beckage, B. & Ellingwood, C. (2008) Fire feedbacks with vegetation and alternative stable states. Complex Systems 18: 159–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bond, W. J. & Midgley, G. F. (2012) Carbon dioxide and the uneasy interactions of trees and savannah grasses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B – Biological Sciences 367: 601–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bond, W., Smythe, K., & Balfour, D. (2001) Acacia species turnover in space and time in an African savanna. Journal of Biogeography 28: 117–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bond, W., Woodward, F., & Midgley, G. (2005) The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytologist 165: 525–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boutton, T. W. (1996) Stable carbon isotope ratios of soil organic matter and their use as indicators of vegetation and climate change. In: Mass spectrometry of soils (eds. Boutton, T. W. & Yamasaki, S. I.), pp. 47–82. Marcel Dekker, New York.Google Scholar

Brando, P. M., Nepstad, D. C., Balch, J. K., et al. (2011) Fire-induced tree mortality in a neotropical forest: the roles of bark traits, tree size, wood density and fire behaviour. Global Change Biology 18: 630–641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brooks, P. M. & Macdonald, I. A. W. (1983) An ecological case history of the Hluhluwe–Corridor–iMfolozi Game Reserve Complex, Natal, South Africa. In: Management of large mammals in African conservation areas (ed. Owen-Smith, R. N.), pp. 51–77. Haum, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Buitenwerf, R., Bond, W. J., Stevens, N., & Trollope, W. S. W. (2011) Increased tree densities in South African savannas: > 50 years of data suggests CO₂ as a driver. Global Change Biology 18: 675–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chesson, P. L. & Warner, R. R. (1981) Environmental variability promotes coexistence in lottery competitive systems. American Naturalist 117: 923–943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Colinvaux, P. A., De Oliveira, P. E., & Bush, M. B. (2000) Amazonian and neotropical plant communities on glacial time-scales: the failure of the aridity and refuge hypotheses. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 141–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cowles, R. B. (1959) Zulu Journal: field notes of a naturalist in South Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cramer, M. D., Chimphango, S. B. M., van Cauter, A., Waldram, M. S., & Bond, W. J. (2007) Grass competition induces N-2 fixation in some species of African Acacia. Journal of Ecology 95: 1123–1133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Deane, N. N. (1966) Ecological changes and their effect on a population of reedbuck. Lammergeyer 6: 2–8.Google Scholar

Delegorgue, A. (1847) Voyage dans l'Afrique Australe, reproduced as Adulphe Delegorgue's travels in Southern Africa, Vol. 1 (Webb, F.. (transl.), Alexander, S. J. & de B. Webb, C. (eds), 1990). University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Dora, C. A. (2004) The influences of habitat structure and landscape heterogeneity on African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) group size in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa. MSc thesis, Oregon State University, USA.Google Scholar

Downing, B. H. (1979) The biological, research and management significance of bush-clearing during the anti-tsetse Glossina spp. campaign, Umfolozi Game Reserve. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Downing, B. H. (1980) Changes in the vegetation of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Zululand, as regulated by edaphic and biotic factors over 36 years. Journal of South African Botany 46: 225–231.Google Scholar

Eeley, H. A., Lawes, M. J., & Piper, S. E. (1999) The influence of climate change on the distribution of indigenous forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of Biogeography 26: 595–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eldridge, D. J., Bowker, M. A., Maestre, F. T., et al. (2011) Impacts of shrub encroachment on ecosystem structure and functioning: towards a global synthesis. Ecology Letters 14: 709–722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife (2002) Hluhluwe iMfolozi Park Management Plan. Ezemvelo KwaZulu Natal Wildlife, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.Google Scholar

February, E. C., Higgins, S. I., Bond, W. J., & Swemmer, L. (2013) Influence of competition and rainfall manipulation on the growth responses of savanna trees and grasses. Ecology 94: 1155–1164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Feely, J. M. (1985) Smelting in the Iron Age of Transkei. South African Journal of Science 81: 10–11.Google Scholar

Foster, W. E. (1955) History of the Umfolozi Game Reserve. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Gillson, L. (2006) A ‘large infrequent disturbance’ in an East African savanna. African Journal of Ecology 44: 458–467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gillson, L. (2008) Resilience, thresholds and dynamic landscapes. South African Journal of Botany 74: 357–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gillson, L. (2015) Evidence of a tipping point in a southern African savanna? Ecological Complexity 21: 78–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gillson, L. & Duffin, K. (2007) Thresholds of potential concern as benchmarks in the management of African savannahs. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B – Biological Sciences 362: 309–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Good, S. P. & Caylor, K. K. (2011) Climatological determinants of woody cover in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108: 4902–4907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goucher, C. L. (1981) Iron is iron 'til it is rust: trade and ecology in the decline of West African iron-smelting. Journal of African History 22: 179–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hall, M. (1978) Enkwazini: fourth century Iron Age site on the Zululand coast. South African Journal of Science 74: 70–71.Google Scholar

Hall, M. (1984) Prehistoric farming in the Mfolozi and Hluhluwe valleys of Southeast Africa: an archaeo-botanical survey. Journal of Archaeological Science 11: 223–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hall, M. (1987) Archaeology and modes of production in pre-colonial Southern Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies 14: 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Henkel, J. S. (1937) Report on the plant and animal ecology of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve with special reference to tsetse flies. The Natal Witness, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.Google Scholar

Higgins, S., Bond, W., & Trollope, W. (2000) Fire, resprouting and variability: a recipe for grass–tree coexistence in savanna, Journal of Ecology 88: 213–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hirota, M., Holmgren, M., Van Nes, E. H., & Scheffer, M. (2011) Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science 334: 232–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hoffmann, W., Orthen, B., & Do Nascimento, P. (2003) Comparative fire ecology of tropical savanna and forest trees. Functional Ecology 17: 720–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hoffmann, W., Adasme, R., Haridasan, M., et al. (2009) Tree topkill, not mortality, governs the dynamics of savanna–forest boundaries under frequent fire in central Brazil. Ecology 90: 1326–1337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Holdo, R. M., Sinclair, A. R. E., Dobson, A. P., et al. (2009) A disease-mediated trophic cascade in the Serengeti and its implications for ecosystem C. PLoS Biology 7: e1000210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Holdridge, L. R. (1947) Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data. Science 105: 367–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hutchinson, G. E. (1961) The paradox of the plankton. American Naturalist 95: 137–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jeffers, E. S., Bonsall, M. B., Brooks, S. J., & Willis, K. J. (2011) Abrupt environmental changes drive shifts in tree–grass interaction outcomes. Journal of Ecology 99: 1063–1070.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jeltsch, F., Weber, G., & Grimm, V. (2000) Ecological buffering mechanisms in savannas: a unifying theory of long-term tree–grass coexistence. Plant Ecology 150: 161–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kemper, N. (1991) The structure and dynamics of riverine vegetation in the Umfolozi Game Reserve. MSc thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.Google Scholar

Kristen, I., Fuhrmann, A., Thorpe, J., et al. (2007) Hydrological changes in southern Africa over the last 200 Ka as recorded in lake sediments from the Tswaing impact crater. South African Journal of Geology 110: 311–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lawes, M. J., Eeley, H. A. C., Findlay, N. J., & Forbes, D. (2007) Resilient forest faunal communities in South Africa: a legacy of palaeoclimatic change and extinction filtering? Journal of Biogeography 34: 1246–1264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lincoln, D. (1995) Settlement and servitude in Zululand, 1918–1948. International Journal of African Historical Studies 28: 49–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maggs, T. (1980) The Iron Age sequence south of the Vaal and Pongola rivers: some historical implications. Journal of African History 21: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maggs, T. & Whitelaw, G. (1991) A review of recent archaeological research on food-producing communities in southern Africa. Journal of African History 32: 3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maley, J. (2011) The African rain forest – main characteristics of changes in vegetation and climate from the Upper Cretaceous to the Quaternary. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Section B Biological Sciences 104: 31–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mariotti, A. & Balesdent, J. (1990) 13C natural abundance as a tracer of soil organic matter turnover and paleoenvironment dynamics. Chemical Geology 84: 217–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mayle, F. E. (2000) Millennial-scale dynamics of southern Amazonian rain forests. Science 290: 2291–2294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mayle, F. E., Langstroth, R. P., Fisher, R. A., & Meir, P. (2007) Long-term forest–savannah dynamics in the Bolivian Amazon: implications for conservation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B – Biological Sciences 362: 291–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McCracken, D. P. (2008) Saving the Zululand wilderness: an early struggle for nature conservation. Jacana Media, Auckland Park.Google Scholar

Mentis, M. T. (1968) An evaluation of the veld conditions in the Umfolozi Game Reserve: an assessment of soil erosion and the amount of available graze and browse at present. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Mucina, L. & Rutherford, M. C. (2006) The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Nepstad, D., Lefebvre, P., Lopes da Silva, U., et al. (2004) Amazon drought and its implications for forest flammability and tree growth: a basin-wide analysis. Global Change Biology 10: 704–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

O'Connor, T. G., Puttick, J. R., & Hoffman, M. T. (2014) Bush encroachment in southern Africa: changes and causes. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 31: 67–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Parr, C. L., Gray, E. F., & Bond, W. J. (2012) Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change-induced biome switch. Diversity and Distributions 18: 493–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pickett, S. T. A., Parker, V. T., & Fielder, P. L. (1992) The new paradigm in ecology: implications for conservation biology about the species level. In: Conservation biology: the theory and practice of nature conservation, preservation, and management (eds. Fielder, P. L. & Jain, S. K.), pp. 65–88. Chapman and Hall, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Plug, I. (2004) Resource exploitation: animal use during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal: Sibudu Cave. South African Journal of Science 100: 151–158.Google Scholar

Prins, H. H. T. & van der Jeugd, H. P. (1993) Herbivore population crashes and woodland structure in East Africa. Journal of Ecology 81: 305–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rees, M. (2001) Long-term studies of vegetation dynamics. Science 293: 650–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Riginos, C. (2009) Grass competition suppresses savanna tree growth across multiple demographic stages. Ecology 90: 335–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Russell, J. & Ward, D. (2014) Vegetation change in northern KwaZulu-Natal since the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879: local or global drivers? African Journal of Range and Forage Science 31: 89–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sankaran, M., Ratnam, J., & Hanan, N. P. (2004) Tree–grass coexistence in savannas revisited – insights from an examination of assumptions and mechanisms invoked in existing models. Ecology Letters 7: 480–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sankaran, M., Hanan, N., Scholes, R., et al. (2005) Determinants of woody cover in African savannas. Nature 438: 846–849.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Scanlon, T., Caylor, K., Manfreda, S., Levin, S., & Rodriguez-Iturbe, I. (2005) Dynamic response of grass cover to rainfall variability: implications for the function and persistence of savanna ecosystems. Advances in Water Resources 28: 291–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Scholes, R. & Archer, S. (1997) Tree–grass interactions in savannas. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28: 517–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Scholes, R. J. & Walker, B. H. (1993) An African savanna: synthesis of the Nylsvley study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Silva, L. C. R., Sternberg, L., Haridasan, M., et al. (2008) Expansion of gallery forests into central Brazilian savannas. Global Change Biology 14: 2108–2118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Simon, M. F., Grether, R., De Queiroz, L. P., et al. (2009) Recent assembly of the Cerrado, a neotropical plant diversity hotspot, by in situ evolution of adaptations to fire. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 20359–20364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Skowno, A., Midgley, J., Bond, W., & Balfour, D. (1999) Secondary succession in Acacia nilotica (L.) savanna in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa. Plant Ecology 145: 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Staver, A. C., Archibald, S., & Levin, S. A. (2011a) Tree cover in sub-Saharan Africa: rainfall and fire constrain forest and savanna as alternative stable states. Ecology 92: 1063–1072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Staver, A. C., Archibald, S., & Levin, S. A. (2011b) The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states. Science 334: 230–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Staver, A. C., Bond, W. J., & February, E. C. (2011c) History matters: tree establishment variability and species turnover in an African savanna. Ecosphere 2: art49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Stevens, N. (2014) Exploring the potential impacts of global change on the woody component of South African savannas. PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, South Africa.Google Scholar

te Beest, M., Cromsigt, J. P. G. M., Ngobese, J., & Olff, H. (2012) Managing invasions at the cost of native habitat? An experimental test of the impact of fire on the invasion of Chromolaena odorata in a South African savanna. Biological Invasions 14: 607–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

van der Merwe, N. J. (1980) The advent of iron in Africa. In: The coming of the age of iron (eds Wertime, T. A. & Muhly, J. D.), pp. 463–506. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar

Wadley, L. (2004) Vegetation changes between 61,500 and 26,000 years ago: the evidence from seeds in Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science 100: 167–173.Google Scholar

Wadley, L. & Jacobs, Z. (2004) Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal: background to the excavations of Middle Stone Age and Iron Age occupations. South African Journal of Science 100: 145–151.Google Scholar

Waldram, M. S., Bond, W. J., & Stock, W. D. (2008) Ecological engineering by a mega-grazer: white rhino impacts on a South African savanna. Ecosystems 11: 101–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Walker, B., Ludwig, D., Holling, C., & Peterman, R. (1981) Stability of semi-arid savanna grazing systems. Journal of Ecology 69: 473–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Walter, H. (1971) Ecology of tropical and subtropical vegetation. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.Google Scholar

Watson, H. K. (1995) Management implications of vegetation changes in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park. South African Geographical Journal 77: 77–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

West, A. (1999) Hunting for humans in forest ecosystems: are the traces of Iron-Age people detectable? MSc thesis, University of Cape Town, South Africa.Google Scholar

West, A. G., Bond, W. J., & Midgley, J. J. (2000) Soil carbon isotopes reveal ancient grassland under forest in Hluhluwe, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science 96: 252–254.Google Scholar

Whateley, A. & Porter, R. N. (1983) The woody vegetation communities of Hluhluwe–Corridor–Umfolozi Game Reserve Complex. Bothalia 14: 745–758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Whittaker, R. (1975) Communities and ecosystems. Macmillan, New York.Google Scholar

Wigley, B. J., Bond, W. J., & Hoffman, M. T. (2010) Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers? Global Change Biology 16: 964–976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Williams, R., Duff, G., Bowman, D., & Cook, G. (1996) Variation in the composition and structure of tropical savannas as a function of rainfall and soil texture along a large-scale climatic gradient in the Northern Territory, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 23: 747–756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Willis, K. J. & MacDonald, G. (2011) Long-term ecological records and their relevance to climate change predictions for a warmer world. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 42: 267–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Willis, K., Kleczkowski, A., & Crowhurst, S. (1999) 124,000-year periodicity in terrestrial vegetation change during the late Pliocene epoch. Nature 397: 685–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Willis, K. J., Bailey, R. M., Bhagwat, S. A., & Birks, H. J. B. (2010) Biodiversity baselines, thresholds and resilience: testing predictions and assumptions using palaeoecological data. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25: 583–591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wills, A. J. (1984) The 1984 flood in Umfolozi Game Reserve: ecological effects and management implications. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Anderson, J. L. (1979) The effects of past vegetation changes on the mammals of the complex. Paper presented at the workshop on vegetation dynamics of the central complex, Hluhluwe Game Reserve, 1–2 August 1979. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Anon. (1952) Nature Reserves of Natal and Zululand. Oryx 1: 235–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baldwin, W. C. (1894) African hunting and adventure from Natal to the Zambezi, including Lake Ngami, the Kalahari Desert, etc., from 1852 to 1860. Richard Bentley/Macmillan & Co., London.Google Scholar

Ballard, C. (1983) The great rinderpest epidemic in Natal and Zululand: a case study of ecological break-down and economic collapse. Seminar paper, African Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand.Google Scholar

Bothma, J. P., Peel, M. J. S., Pettit, S., & Grossman, D. (1990) Evaluating the accuracy of some commonly used game-counting methods. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 20: 26–32.Google Scholar

Bourquin, O. (1968) Summary of results of game counts carried out in the Umfolozi/Corridor/Hluhluwe complex, 1967. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Bourquin, O. & Hitchins, P. M. (1979) Faunal and vegetation changes in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve 1937–1970. Unpublished Report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Bourquin, O., Vincent, J., & Hitchins, P. M. (1971) The vertebrates of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve–Corridor (State-land)–Umfolozi Game Reserve Complex. The Lammergeyer 14: 1–58.Google Scholar

Brooks, P. M. (1978). Ungulate population estimates for H.G.R. and the N. Corridor for July 1978, based on foot and helicopter counts. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Brooks, P. M. (1982) Population estimates and stocking rates of ungulates in Hluhluwe Game Reserve and northern Corridor calculated for April 1982 for use in the 1982–1984 removal cycle. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Brooks, P. M. & Macdonald, I. A. W. (1983) The Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve: an ecological case history. In: Management of large mammals in African conservation areas (ed. Owen-Smith, R. N.), pp. 51–77. Haum, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Brooks, P. M., Knott, A. P., & Whateley, A. (1983) Helicopter count results for Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves for August 1983, and their implications for the 1982–1985 game control programme. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Brooks, S. (2006) Human discourses, animal geographies: imagining Umfolozi's white rhinos. Current Writing 18: 6–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, K. (2008) From Ubombo to Mkuzi: disease, colonial science, and the control of nagana (livestock trypanosomosis) in Zululand, South Africa, c. 1894–1953. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 63: 285–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Buckland, S. T., Anderson, D. R., Burnham, K. P., et al. (1993) Distance sampling: estimating abundance of biological populations. Chapman & Hall, London.Google Scholar

Burnham, K. P., Anderson, D. R., & Laake, J. L. (1980) Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations. Wildlife Monographs 72: 3–202.Google Scholar

Cardillo, M., Mace, G. M., Jones, K. E., et al. (2005) Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species. Science 19: 123–241.Google Scholar

Chapin, F. S., Walker, B. H., Hobbs, R. J., et al. (1997) Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems. Science 277: 500–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clark, J. L. & Plug, I. (2008) Animal exploitation strategies during the South African Middle Stone Age: Howiesons Poort and post-Howiesons Poort fauna from Sibudu Cave. Journal of Human Evolution 54: 886–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cramer, M. D. & Mazel, A. D. (2007) The past distribution of giraffe in KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 37: 197–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Deane, N. N. (1966) Ecological changes and their effect on a population of reedbuck (Redunca arundinum (Boddaert)). Lammergeyer 6: 2–8.Google Scholar

Delegorgue, A. (1847) Voyage dans l'Afrique Australe, reproduced as Adulphe Delegorgue's travels in Southern Africa, Vol. 1 (Webb, F.. (transl.), Alexander, S. J. & de B. Webb, C. (eds), 1990). University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Drummond, W. H. (1875) The large game and natural history of South and South-East Africa, from the journals of the Hon. W. H. Drummond. Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh.Google Scholar

Faith, J. T. (2014) Late Pleistocene and Holocene extinctions on continental Africa. Earth-Science Reviews 128: 105–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Findlay, F. R. N. (1903) Big game shooting and travels in South-East Africa: an account of shooting trips in the Cheringoma and Gorongoza divisions of Portuguese South-East Africa and in Zululand. T. Fisher Unwin, London.Google Scholar

Foster, W. (1955) A history of Umfolozi Game Reserve. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Fynn, H. F. (1950) The diary of Henry Francis Fynn, compiled from original sources and edited by Stuart, J. and Malcolm, D. McK.. Shuter & Shooter, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Goodman, P. S. & Tomkinson, A. J. (1987) The past distribution of giraffe in Zululand and its implications for reserve management. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 17: 28–32.Google Scholar

Henkel, J. S. (1937) Report on the plant and animal ecology of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve with special reference to tsetse flies. The Natal Witness, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.Google Scholar

Hitchins, P. M. & Vincent, J. (1972) Observations on range extension and dispersal of impala (Aepyceros melampus Lichtenstein) in Zululand. Journal of the South African Wildlife Management Association 2: 3–8.Google Scholar

Knott, A. P. (1986) Minutes of Workshop on Management Strategies in Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves held at Masinda Lodge Lounge, U.G.R. 2nd–4th December 1985. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Knott, A. P. & Venter, J. (1987) An observation on the relative accuracy of two tran-sect census techniques. Lammergeyer 38: 2–1.Google Scholar

Knott, A. P. & Venter, J. (1990) A field test on the accuracy and repeatability of a line transect method. Lammergeyer 41: 1–2.Google Scholar

Lydekker, R. (1908) The game animals of Africa. Rowland Ward, London.Google Scholar

McCracken, D. P. (2008) Saving the Zululand wilderness. An early struggle for nature conservation. Jacana Media, Johannesburg.Google Scholar

Melton, D. A. (1978a) The validity of helicopter counts as indices of trend. Lammergeyer 26: 3–3.Google Scholar

Melton, D. A. (1978b) Undercounting bias of helicopter censuses in Umfolozi Game Reserve. Lammergeyer 26: 1–6.Google Scholar

Melton, D. A. (1987) Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsipyrmnus) population dynamics: the testing of an hypothesis. African Journal of Ecology 25: 13–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mentis, M. T. (1970) Estimates of natural biomasses of large herbivores in the Umfolozi Game Reserve area. Mammalia 34: 363–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Minnaar, A. de V. (1989) Nagana, big-game drives and the Zululand Game Reserves (1890s to 1950s). CONTREE 25: 12–21.Google Scholar

Ogutu, J. O. & Owen-Smith, N. (2003) ENSO, rainfall and temperature influences on extreme population declines among African savanna ungulates. Ecology Letters 6: 41–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Owen-Smith, R. N. (1973) The behavioural ecology of the white rhinoceros. PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin.Google Scholar

Owen-Smith, R. N. (1988) Megaherbivores. The influence of very large body size on ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Paine, R. T. (2000) Phycology for the mammologist: marine rocky shores and mammal dominated communities: how different are the structuring processes? Journal of Mammalogy 81: 637–648.Google Scholar

Player, I. C. & Feely, J. M. (1960). A preliminary report on the square-lipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum simum. The Lammergeyer 1: 2.Google Scholar

Plug, I. (2004) Resource exploitation: animal use during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. South African Journal of Science 100: 151–158.Google Scholar

Plug, I. & Badenhorst, S. (2001) The distribution of macromammals in southern Africa over the past 30 000 years. Transvaal Museum Monograph 12, Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.Google Scholar

Rowe-Rowe, D. T. (1994) The ungulates of Natal. Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Selous, F. C. (1908) African nature notes and reminiscences. Macmillan and Co., Ltd, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Skinner, J. D. & Chimimba, C. T. (2005) The mammals of the southern African sub-region, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Thomas, L., Buckland, S. T., Rexstad, E. A., et al. (2010) Distance software: design and analysis of distance sampling surveys for estimating population size. Journal of Applied Ecology 47: 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Van Hensbergen, H. J., Berry, M. P. S., & Junitz, J. (1996) Helicopter-based line transect estimates of some southern African game populations. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 26: 8–7.Google Scholar

Vincent, J. (1969) The status of the square-lipped rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum simum (Burchell), in Zululand. Lammergeyer 10: 12–21.Google Scholar

Vincent, J. (1970) The history of Umfolozi Game Reserve, Zululand, as it relates to management. Lammergeyer 11: 7–49.Google Scholar

Walker, B. H., Emslie, R. H., Owen-Smith, R. N., et al. (1987) To cull or not to cull: lessons from a southern African drought. Journal of Applied Ecology 24: 381–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ward, C. J. (1958) Report on the Proceedings on the Occasion of the Visit of the Ecologist Mr. C. J. Ward to a Meeting of the Board on 8 August 1958. Unpublished report, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg.Google Scholar

Ward, R. (1896) Records of big game containing an account of their distribution, descriptions of species, lengths and weights, measurements of horns and field notes – for the use of sportsmen and naturalists. Rowland Ward, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wills, A. J. (1986) Re-establishment of elephant in the Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves, Natal, South Africa. Pachyderm 7: 1–3.Google Scholar