Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-27gpq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-19T02:44:43.842Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 16 - The Past and Future Ecologies of Australasian Kelp Forests

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 September 2019

Stephen J. Hawkins
Affiliation:
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth
Katrin Bohn
Affiliation:
Natural England
Louise B. Firth
Affiliation:
University of Plymouth
Gray A. Williams
Affiliation:
The University of Hong Kong
Get access

Summary

While constant change characterises ecology, subtidal ecologists seem set to take a deep dive in to the biological processes that accelerate and compensate for environmental change. Similar to the technological and collaborative progress that benefited the present generation of authors, continuing progress may assist future generations of subtidal ecologists to figure out why kelp forests are characterised by global mosaics of long-term loss, gain and stasis. Where and how might kelp decline or flourish or simply persist future ocean change? Our review takes a biogeographic perspective to synthesise ecological patterns and the processes that create them. On this basis, we consider the modification of ecological processes by oceans undergoing physical and chemical change and, as a result, consider their future ecology. We find that future oceans will make life beyond the capacity of kelp to exist on many coasts, but not all coasts will be beyond the capacity of a kelp’s life. Consequently, this review provides a sign post for future research into the future decline or persistence or even increase of kelp forests.

Type
Chapter
Information
Interactions in the Marine Benthos
Global Patterns and Processes
, pp. 414 - 430
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, M. J., Connell, S. D., Gillanders, B. M. et al. (2005). Relationships between taxonomic resolution and spatial scales of multivariate variation. Journal of Animal Ecology, 74(4), 636–46.Google Scholar
Babcock, R., Shears, N., Alcala, A. et al. (2010). Decadal trends in marine reserves reveal differential rates of change in direct and indirect effects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(43), 18256–61.Google Scholar
Bennett, S., Wernberg, T., Connell, S. D., Hobday, A. J., Johnson, C. R. and Poloczanska, E. S. (2016). The ‘Great Southern Reef’: social, ecological and economic value of Australia’s neglected kelp forests. Marine and Freshwater Research, 67(1), 4756.Google Scholar
Bennett, S., Wernberg, T., Harvey, E. S., Santana‐Garcon, J. and Saunders, B. J. (2015). Tropical herbivores provide resilience to a climate‐mediated phase shift on temperate reefs. Ecology Letters, 18(7), 714–23.Google Scholar
Bishop, M. J., Coleman, M. A. and Kelaher, B. P. (2010). Cross-habitat impacts of species decline: response of estuarine sediment communities to changing detrital resources. Oecologia, 163(2), 517–25.Google Scholar
Bolton, J. J. (1994). Global seaweed diversity: pattern and anomalies. Botanica Marina, 37, 241–5.Google Scholar
Bowen, M., Markham, J., Sutton, P. et al. (2017). Interannual variability of sea surface temperature in the southwest Pacific and the role of ocean dynamics. Journal of Climate, 30(18), 7481–92.Google Scholar
Cetina‐Heredia, P., Roughan, M., Van Sebille, E. and Coleman, M. (2014). Temporal variability in the East Australian Current: implications for particle transport along the south-eastern Australian coast. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 119(7), 4351–66.Google Scholar
Cetina-Heredia, P., Roughan, M., Van Sebille, E., Feng, M. and Coleman, M. A. (2015). Strengthened currents override the effect of warming on lobster larval dispersal and survival. Global Change Biology, 21(12), 4377–86.Google Scholar
Chiswell, S. M., Bostock, H. C., Sutton, P. J. H. and Williams, M. J. M. (2015). Physical oceanography of the deep seas around New Zealand: a review. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 49(2), 286317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, M., Bates, A., Stuart‐Smith, R. et al. (2015). Functional traits reveal early responses in marine reserves following protection from fishing. Diversity and Distributions, 21(8), 876–87.Google Scholar
Coleman, M., Palmer-Brodie, A. and Kelaher, B. P. (2013a). Conservation benefits of a network of marine reserves and partially protected areas. Biological Conservation, 167, 257–64.Google Scholar
Coleman, M. A., Cetina‐Heredia, P., Roughan, M., Feng, M., Sebille, E. and Kelaher, B. P. (2017). Anticipating changes to future connectivity within a network of marine protected areas. Global Change Biology, 23(9), 3533–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coleman, M. A., Chambers, J., Knott, N. A. et al. (2011a). Connectivity within and among a network of temperate marine reserves. PLoS ONE, 6(5), e20168.Google Scholar
Coleman, M. A., Feng, M., Roughan, M., Cetina‐Heredia, P. and Connell, S. D. (2013b). Temperate shelf water dispersal by Australian boundary currents: implications for population connectivity. Limnology and Oceanography: Fluids and Environments, 3(1), 295309.Google Scholar
Coleman, M. A., Gillanders, B. M. and Connell, S. D. (2009). Dispersal and gene flow in the habitat-forming kelp, Ecklonia radiata: relative degrees of isolation across an east-west coastline. Marine and Freshwater Research, 60(8), 802–9.Google Scholar
Coleman, M. A. and Kelaher, B. P. (2009). Connectivity among fragmented populations of a habitat-forming alga, Phyllospora comosa (Phaeophyceae, Fucales) on an urbanised coast. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 381, 6370.Google Scholar
Coleman, M. A., Roughan, M., Macdonald, H. S. et al. (2011b). Variation in the strength of continental boundary currents determines continent-wide connectivity in kelp. Journal of Ecology, 99(4), 1026–32.Google Scholar
Coleman, M. A. and Wernberg, T. (2017). Forgotten underwater forests: the key role of fucoids on Australian temperate reefs. Ecology and Evolution, 7(20), 8406–18.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D. (2007a). Subtidal Temperate Rocky Habitats: Habitat Heterogeneity at Local to Continental Scales In Connell, S. D. and Gillanders, B. M., eds. Marine Ecology. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, pp. 378401.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D. (2007b). Water Quality and the Loss of Coral Reefs and Kelp Forests: Alternative States and the Influence of Fishing. In Connell, S. D. and Gillanders, B. M., eds. Marine Ecology. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, pp. 556–68.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D., Doubleday, Z. A., Foster, N. R. et al. (2018). The duality of ocean acidification as a resource and a stressor. Ecology, 99(5), 1005–10.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D., Doubleday, Z. A., Hamlyn, S. B. et al. (2017). How ocean acidification can benefit calcifiers. Current Biology, 27, R83–102.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D. and Ghedini, G. (2015). Resisting regime-shifts: the stabilising effect of compensatory processes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 30, 513–15.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D. and Irving, A. D. (2008). Integrating ecology with biogeography using landscape characteristics: a case study of subtidal habitat across continental Australia. Journal of Biogeography, 35, 1608–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, S. D. and Irving, A. D. (2009). The Subtidal Ecology of Rocky Coasts: Local-Regional-Biogeographic Patterns and Their Experimental Analysis. In Witman, J. D. and Kaustuv, R., eds. Marine Macroecology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 392417.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D., Kroeker, K. J., Fabricius, K. E., Kline, D. I. and Russell, B. D. (2013). The other ocean acidification problem: CO2 as a resource among competitors for ecosystem dominance. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 368, 20120442.Google Scholar
Connell, S. D. and Russell, B. D. (2010). The direct effects of increasing CO2 and temperature on non-calcifying organisms: increasing the potential for phase shifts in kelp forests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 277, 1409–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, S. D., Russell, B. D., Turner, D. J. et al. (2008). Recovering a lost baseline: missing kelp forests from a metropolitan coast. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 360, 6372.Google Scholar
Doney, S. C., Fabry, V. J., Feely, R. A. and Kleypas, J. A. (2009). Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem. Annual Review of Marine Science, 1, 169–92.Google Scholar
Durrant, H. M., Barrett, N. S., Edgar, G. J., Coleman, M. A. and Burridge, C. P. (2015). Shallow phylogeographic histories of key species in a biodiversity hotspot. Phycologia, 54(6), 556–65.Google Scholar
Durrant, H. M. S., Barrett, N. S., Edgar, G. J., Coleman, M. A., and Burridge, C. P. (2018). Seascape habitat patchiness and hydrodynamics explain genetic structuring of kelp populations. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 598, 8192.Google Scholar
Edgar, G. J., Stuart-Smith, R. D., Willis, T. J. et al. (2014). Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature, 506(7487), 216–20.Google Scholar
Erlandson, J. M., Graham, M. H., Bourque, B. J., Corbett, D., Estes, J. A. and Steneck, R. S. (2007). The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, the Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2(2), 161–74.Google Scholar
Falkenberg, L. J., Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2013a). Contrasting resource limitations of marine primary producers: implications for competitive interactions under enriched CO2 and nutrient regimes. Oecologia, 172, 575–83.Google Scholar
Falkenberg, L. J., Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2013b). Future herbivory: the indirect effects of enriched CO2 may rival its direct effects Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 492, 8595.Google Scholar
Feely, R. A., Sabine, C. L., Lee, K. et al. (2004). Impact of anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 system in the oceans. Science, 305(5682), 362–6.Google Scholar
Feng, M., Li, Y. and Meyers, G. (2004). Multidecadal variations of Fremantle sea level: footprint of climate variability in the tropical Pacific. Geophysical Research Letters, 31(16).Google Scholar
Filbee-Dexter, K. and Wernberg, T. (2018). Rise of turfs: a new battlefront for globally declining kelp forests. Bioscience, 68(2), 6476.Google Scholar
Fowler-Walker, M. J. and Connell, S. D. (2002). Opposing states of subtidal habitat across temperate Australia: consistency and predictability in kelp canopy – understorey associations. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 240, 4956.Google Scholar
Fraser, C. I., Winter, D. J., Spencer, H. G. and Waters, J. M. (2010). Multigene phylogeny of the southern bull-kelp genus Durvillaea (Phaeophyceae: Fucales). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57(3), 1301–11.Google Scholar
García Molinos, J., Halpern, B. S., Schoeman, D. S. et al. (2015). Climate velocity and the future global redistribution of marine biodiversity. Nature Climate Change, 6, 83.Google Scholar
Ghedini, G. and Connell, S. D. (2016). Organismal homeostasis buffers the effects of abiotic change on community dynamics. Ecology, 97, 2671–9.Google Scholar
Ghedini, G. and Connell, S. D. (2017). Moving ocean acidification research beyond a simple science: investigating ecological change and their stabilizers. Food Webs, 13(Supplement C), 53–9.Google Scholar
Ghedini, G., Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2015). Trophic compensation reinforces resistance: herbivory absorbs the increasing effects of multiple disturbances. Ecology Letters, 18, 182–7.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, S. U., Nagelkerken, I., Ferreira, C. M., Ullah, H. and Connell, S. D. (2017). Boosted food web productivity through ocean acidification collapses under warming. Global Change Biology, 23(10), 4177–84.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, S. U., Nagelkerken, I., Marangon, E., Bonnet, A., Ferreira, C. M. and Connell, S. D. (2018). Ecological complexity buffers the impacts of future climate on marine consumers. Nature Climate Change, 8, 229–33.Google Scholar
Goodsell, P. J., Fowler-Walker, M. J., Gillanders, B. M. and Connell, S. D. (2004). Variations in the configuration of algae in subtidal forests: implications for invertebrate assemblages. Austral Ecology, 29, 350–7.Google Scholar
Gorman, D. and Connell, S. D. (2009). Recovering subtidal forests on human-dominated landscapes. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46, 1258–65.Google Scholar
Gorman, D., Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2009). Land-to-sea connectivity: linking human-derived terrestrial subsidies to subtidal habitat change on open rocky coasts. Ecological Applications, 19(5), 1114–26.Google Scholar
Griffin, K. J., Hedge, L. H., González-Rivero, M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. I. and Johnston, E. L. (2017). An evaluation of semi-automated methods for collecting ecosystem-level data in temperate marine systems. Ecology and Evolution, 7(13), 4640–50.Google Scholar
Hanson, C. E., Pattiaratchi, C. B. and Waite, A. M. (2005). Seasonal production regimes off south-western Australia: influence of the Capes and Leeuwin Currents on phytoplankton dynamics. Marine and Freshwater Research, 56(7), 1011–26.Google Scholar
Harley, C. D. G., Connell, S. D., Doubleday, Z. A. et al. (2017). Conceptualizing ecosystem tipping points within a physiological framework. Ecology and Evolution, 7(15), 6035–45.Google Scholar
Heldt, K. A., Connell, S. D., Anderson, K., Russell, B. D. and Munguia, P. (2016). Future climate stimulates population out-breaks by relaxing constraints on reproduction. Scientific Reports, 6, 33383.Google Scholar
Hill, K., Rintoul, S., Coleman, R. and Ridgway, K. (2008). Wind forced low frequency variability of the East Australia current. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(8).Google Scholar
Hill, K. L., Rintoul, S. R., Ridgway, K. R. and Oke, P. R. (2011). Decadal changes in the South Pacific western boundary current system revealed in observations and ocean state estimates. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 116(C1).Google Scholar
Hobday, A. J., Alexander, L. V., Perkins, S. E. et al. (2016). A hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwaves. Progress in Oceanography, 141, 227–38.Google Scholar
Hughes, T. P. (1994). Catastrophes, phase shifts and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science, 265, 1547–51.Google Scholar
Hughes, T. P., Linares, C., Dakos, V., van de Leemput, I. A. and van Nes, E. H. (2013). Living dangerously on borrowed time during slow, unrecognized regime shifts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28, 149–55.Google Scholar
Irving, A. D., Connell, S. D. and Gillanders, B. M. (2004). Local complexity in patterns of canopy-benthos associations produce regional patterns across temperate Australasia. Marine Biology, 144, 361–8.Google Scholar
Johnson, C. R., Banks, S. C., Barrett, N. S. et al. (2011). Climate change cascades: shifts in oceanography, species’ ranges and subtidal marine community dynamics in eastern Tasmania. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 400(1), 1732.Google Scholar
Kelaher, B. P., Page, A., Dasey, M. et al. (2015). Strengthened enforcement enhances marine sanctuary performance. Global Ecology and Conservation, 3, 503–10.Google Scholar
Krumhansl, K. A., Okamoto, D. K., Rassweiler, A. et al. (2016). Global patterns of kelp change over the past half-century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113, 13785–90.Google Scholar
Laffoley, D. and Baxter, J. (2016). Explaining Ocean Warming: Causes, Scale, Effects and Consequences. IUCN, Gland, 27.Google Scholar
Ling, S. D. (2008). Range expansion of a habitat-modifying species leads to loss of taxonomic diversity: a new and impoverished reef state. Oecologia, 156(4), 883–94.Google Scholar
Ling, S. D., Johnson, C. R., Frusher, S. D. and Ridgway, K. R. (2009). Overfishing reduces resilience of kelp beds to climate-driven catastrophic phase shift. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(52), 22341–5.Google Scholar
Livore, J. P. and Connell, S. D. (2012). Reducing per capita food supply alters urchin condition and habitat. Marine Biology, 159(5), 967–73.Google Scholar
Martínez, B., Radford, B., Thomsen, M. S. et al. (2018). Distribution models predict large contractions in habitat-forming seaweeds in response to ocean warming. Diversity and Distributions, 24(10), 1350–66.Google Scholar
Marzinelli, E., Campbell, A., Vergés, A., Coleman, M., Kelaher, B. P. and Steinberg, P. (2014). Restoring seaweeds: does the declining fucoid Phyllospora comosa support different biodiversity than other habitats? Journal of Applied Phycology, 26(2), 1089–96.Google Scholar
Mata, M. M., Wijffels, S. E., Church, J. A. and Tomczak, M. (2006). Eddy shedding and energy conversions in the East Australian Current. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 111(C9).Google Scholar
McSkimming, C., Russell, B. D., Tanner, J. E. and Connell, S. D. (2016). A test of metabolic and consumptive responses to local and global perturbations: enhanced resources stimulate herbivores to counter expansion of weedy species. Marine and Freshwater Research, 67(1), 96102.Google Scholar
McSkimming, C., Tanner, J. E., Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2015). Compensation of nutrient pollution by herbivores in seagrass meadows. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 471, 112–18.Google Scholar
Menge, B. A., Lubchenco, J., Bracken, M. E. S. et al. (2003). Coastal oceanography sets the pace of rocky intertidal community dynamics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(21), 12229–34.Google Scholar
Mertens, N. L., Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2015). Escaping herbivory: ocean warming as a refuge for primary producers where consumer metabolism and consumption cannot pursue. Oecologia, 179(4), 1223–9.Google Scholar
Nagelkerken, I. and Connell, S. D. (2015). Global alteration of ocean ecosystem functioning due to increasing human CO2 emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 13272–7.Google Scholar
Nagelkerken, I., Russell, B. D., Gillanders, B. M. and Connell, S. D. (2016). Ocean acidification alters fish populations indirectly through habitat modification. Nature Climate Change, 6(1), 89.Google Scholar
Norton, T. A. (1999). Stars Beneath the Sea: The Pioneers of Diving. Carroll & Graf Publishers Inc, New York.Google Scholar
Oliver, E. C., Benthuysen, J. A., Bindoff, N. L. et al. (2017). The unprecedented 2015/16 Tasman Sea marine heatwave. Nature Communications, 8, 16101.Google Scholar
Oliver, E. C., Donat, M. G., Burrows, M. T. et al. (2018). Longer and more frequent marine heatwaves over the past century. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1324.Google Scholar
Pearce, A. (1991). Eastern boundary currents of the southern hemisphere. The journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 74, 3545.Google Scholar
Pecl, G. T., Araújo, M. B., Bell, J. D. et al. (2017). Biodiversity redistribution under climate change: impacts on ecosystems and human well-being. Science, 355(6332).Google Scholar
Phillips, J. (2001). Marine macroalgal biodiversity hotspots: why is there high species richness and endemism in southern Australian marine benthic flora? Biodiversity and Conservation, 10(9), 1555–77.Google Scholar
Pistevos, J. C., Nagelkerken, I., Rossi, T., Olmos, M. and Connell, S. D. (2015). Ocean acidification and global warming impair shark hunting behaviour and growth. Scientific Reports, 5, 16293.Google Scholar
Provost, E. J., Kelaher, B. P., Dworjanyn, S. A. et al. (2017). Climate‐driven disparities among ecological interactions threaten kelp forest persistence. Global Change Biology, 23(1), 353–61.Google Scholar
Ridgway, K. (2007). Long‐term trend and decadal variability of the southward penetration of the East Australian Current. Geophysical Research Letters, 34(13).Google Scholar
Ridgway, K. and Dunn, J. (2003). Mesoscale structure of the mean East Australian Current System and its relationship with topography. Progress in Oceanography, 56(2), 189222.Google Scholar
Rossi, T., Nagelkerken, I., Simpson, S. D. et al. (2015). Ocean acidification boosts larval fish development but reduces the window of opportunity for successful settlement. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 282(1821), 20151954.Google Scholar
Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2005). A novel interaction between nutrients and grazers alters relative dominance of marine habitats. Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 289, 511.Google Scholar
Russell, B. D. and Connell, S. D. (2007). Response of grazers to sudden nutrient pulses in oligotrophic v. eutrophic conditions. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 349, 7380.Google Scholar
Russell, B. D., Elsdon, T. S., Gillanders, B. M. and Connell, S. D. (2005). Nutrients increase epiphyte loads: broad-scale observations and an experimental assessment. Marine Biology, 147(2), 551–8.Google Scholar
Schiel, D. (2013). The other 93%: trophic cascades, stressors and managing coastlines in non-marine protected areas. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 47(3), 374–91.Google Scholar
Seers, B. M. and Shears, N. T. (2015). Spatio-temporal patterns in coastal turbidity–Long-term trends and drivers of variation across an estuarine-open coast gradient. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 154, 137–51.Google Scholar
Shears, N. T. and Babcock, R. C. (2002). Marine reserves demonstrate top-down control of community structure on temperate reefs. Oecologia, 132, 131–42.Google Scholar
Shears, N. T. and Babcock, R. C. (2007a). Quantitative description of mainland New Zealand’s shallow subtidal reef communities. Science for Conservation, 280, 126.Google Scholar
Shears, N. T. and Babcock, R. C. (2007b). Quantitative Description of Mainland New Zealand’s Shallow Subtidal Reef Communities. Science & Technical Publishing, Wellington.Google Scholar
Shears, N. T., Babcock, R. C. and Salomon, A. K. (2008). Context‐dependent effects of fishing: variation in trophic cascades across environmental gradients. Ecological Applications, 18(8), 1860–73.Google Scholar
Shears, N. T. and Ross, P. M. (2010). Toxic cascades: multiple anthropogenic stressors have complex and unanticipated interactive effects on temperate reefs. Ecology Letters, 13(9), 1149–59.Google Scholar
Smale, D. A. and Wernberg, T. (2013). Extreme climatic event drives range contraction of a habitat-forming species, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 280(1754).Google Scholar
Smith, H. L., Anderson, M. J., Gillanders, B. M. and Connell, S. D. (2014). Longitudinal variation and effects of habitat on biodiversity of Australasian temperate reef fishes. Journal of Biogeography, 41, 2128–39.Google Scholar
Steneck, R. S., Graham, M. H., Bourget, B. J. et al. (2002). Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation, 29, 436–59.Google Scholar
Steneck, R. S. and Johnson, C. (2014). Kelp Forests: Dynamic Patterns, Processes, and Feedbacks. In Bertness, M. D., Bruno, J. F., Sillman, B. R. and Stachowicz, J. J., eds. Marine Community Ecology and Conservation. Sinauer Associates Inc, Sunderland, MA, pp. 315–36.Google Scholar
Sun, C., Feng, M., Matear, R. J. et al. (2012). Marine downscaling of a future climate scenario for Australian boundary currents. Journal of Climate, 25(8), 2947–62.Google Scholar
Sunday, J. M., Calosi, P., Dupont, S., Munday, P. L., Stillman, J. H. and Reusch, T. B. (2014). Evolution in an acidifying ocean. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 29(2), 117–25.Google Scholar
Sutton, P. J. (2003). The Southland Current: a subantarctic current. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 37(3), 645–52.Google Scholar
Sutton, P. J. and Bowen, M. (2014). Flows in the Tasman front south of Norfolk island. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 119(5), 3041–53.Google Scholar
Thurstan, R. H., Brittain, Z., Jones, D. S., Cameron, E., Dearnaley, J. and Bellgrove, A. (2018). Aboriginal uses of seaweeds in temperate Australia: an archival assessment. Journal of Applied Phycology, 30(3), 1821–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Underwood, A. J., Chapman, M. C. and Connell, S. D. (2000). Observations in ecology: you can’t make progress on processes without understanding the patterns. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 250, 97115.Google Scholar
Vergés, A., Doropoulos, C., Malcolm, H. A. et al. (2016). Long-term empirical evidence of ocean warming leading to tropicalization of fish communities, increased herbivory, and loss of kelp. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(48), 13791–6.Google Scholar
Vergés, A., Steinberg, P. D., Hay, M. E. et al. (2014a). The tropicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: climate-mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281(1789).Google Scholar
Vergés, A., Tomas, F., Cebrian, E. et al. (2014b). Tropical rabbitfish and the deforestation of a warming temperate sea. Journal of Ecology, 102(6), 1518–27.Google Scholar
Vitousek, P. M. (1994). Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology, 75(7), 1862–76.Google Scholar
Walker, J. (2007). Effects of fine sediments on settlement and survival of the sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus in northeastern New Zealand. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 331, 109–18.Google Scholar
Waters, J. M., Wernberg, T., Connell, S. D. et al. (2010). Australia’s marine biogeography revisited: back to the future? Austral Ecology, 35(8), 988–92.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Bennett, S., Babcock, R. C. et al. (2016). Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem. Science, 353(6295), 169–72.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Coleman, M. A., Bennett, S., Thomsen, M. S., Tuya, F. and Kelaher, B. P. (2018). Genetic diversity and kelp forest vulnerability to climatic stress. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1851.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Russell, B. D., Moore, P. J. et al. (2011a). Impacts of climate change in a global hotspot for temperate marine biodiversity and ocean warming. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 400(1–2), 716.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Russell, B. D., Thomsen, M. S. et al. (2011b). Seaweed Communities in Retreat from Ocean Warming. Current Biology, 21(21), 1828–32.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Smale, D. A., Tuya, F. et al. (2013a). An extreme climatic event alters marine ecosystem structure in a global biodiversity hotspot. Nature Climate Change, 3, 7882.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Thomsen, M. S., Connell, S. D. et al. (2013b). The footprint of continental-scale ocean currents on the biogeography of seaweeds. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e80168.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Thomsen, M. S., Tuya, F. and Kendrick, G. A. (2011c). Biogenic habitat structure of seaweeds change along a latitudinal gradient in ocean temperature. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 400(1), 264–71.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Thomsen, M. S., Tuya, F., Kendrick, G. A., Staehr, P. A. and Toohey, B. D. (2010). Decreasing resilience of kelp beds along a latitudinal temperature gradient: potential implications for a warmer future. Ecology Letters, 13(6), 685–94.Google Scholar
Wernberg, T., Vanderklift, M. A., How, J. and Lavery, P. S. (2006). Export of detached macroalgae from reefs to adjacent seagrass beds. Oecologia, 147(4), 692701.Google Scholar
Womersley, H. B. S. (1981). Biogeography of Australasian Marine Macroalgae. In Clayton, M. N. and King, R. J., eds. Marine Botany: An Australian Perspective. Longman Cheshire Pty Ltd, Melbourne, pp. 292307.Google Scholar
Yamaguchi, A., Furumitsu, K., Yagishita, N. and Kume, G. (2010). Biology of herbivorous fish in the coastal areas of western Japan. In Coastal environmental and ecosystem issues of the East China Sea, Nagasaki University, TERRAPUB, Tokyo, 181–90.Google Scholar
Zarco-Perello, S., Wernberg, T., Langlois, T. J. and Vanderklift, M. A. (2017). Tropicalization strengthens consumer pressure on habitat-forming seaweeds. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 820.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×