Corn poppy is the most widespread broadleaf weed infesting winter cereals in Europe. Biotypes that are resistant (R) to both 2,4-D and tribenuron-methyl have evolved in recent decades, thus complicating their chemical control. In this study, field experiments at two locations over three seasons were conducted to evaluate the effects of different weed management strategies on corn poppy resistant to 2,4-D and tribenuron-methyl, including crop rotations, delayed sowing and different herbicide programs. After 3 yr, all integrated weed management (IWM) strategies reduced the initial density of corn poppy, although the most successful strategies were those which either included a suitable crop rotation (sunflower or field peas), or had a variation in the herbicide application timing (early POST or combining PRE or early POST and POST). The efficacy of IWM strategies differed between both locations, possibly due to different population dynamics and the genetic basis of herbicide resistance. Integrated management of multiple herbicide–resistant corn poppy is necessary in order to reduce selection pressure by herbicides, mitigate the evolution of new R biotypes, and reduce the weed density in highly infested fields.

Control of multiple-resistant Palmer amaranth populations in corn will rely heavily on the use of POST 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)-inhibiting herbicides. Therefore, field and greenhouse experiments were conducted to: (1) evaluate Palmer amaranth control with four HPPD inhibitors alone and in combination with atrazine at two application timings and (2) investigate the joint activity of HPPD-inhibiting herbicides and atrazine in atrazine-resistant (AR) and atrazine-susceptible (AS) Palmer amaranth populations. Control of the AR Palmer amaranth population varied among the HPPD-inhibiting herbicides with tolpyralate>tembotrione=topramezone>mesotrione based on GR50 values in the greenhouse. In the field, Palmer amaranth control was lower when the HPPD-inhibiting herbicides, with the exception of tolpyralate, were applied to 15- vs. 8-cm-tall Palmer amaranth. Tolpyralate controlled Palmer amaranth ≥95% at both application timings. The addition of atrazine (560 g ai ha−1) improved Palmer amaranth control with mesotrione and topramezone at the 8-cm application timing and with mesotrione and tembotrione at the 15-cm application timing. In the greenhouse, joint activity of mesotrione and atrazine and tembotrione and atrazine was synergistic with both the AR and AS Palmer amaranth populations. In the AR population, an additional 980 g ai ha−1 of atrazine (8X) was needed to cause a synergistic response compared with the AS population. Synergistic responses with mesotrione were detected with all atrazine rates for the AS population and for atrazine rates ranging from 280 to 2,240 g ai ha−1 for the AR population. Only additive responses were observed when atrazine was applied with tolpyralate and topramezone, indicating that joint activity in the form of synergism occurs more readily with the triketones compared with the benzopyrazoles. When faced with an AR Palmer amaranth population, the addition of atrazine to HPPD inhibitors may increase the overall success of weed management due to joint activity.

Weeds exploit underutilized space, causing economic losses in cropping systems. Weed management tactics alter that underutilized space until the crop can mature and efficiently use that space. One tactic is to reduce the weed propagules (e.g., seeds and tubers) that persist quiescently in the soil, which includes minimizing production and addition of new propagules to the soil. Purple nutsedge is a problematic weed around the globe, persisting between growing seasons as tubers in the soil. Imazapic is a peanut herbicide often used in Georgia for control of purple nutsedge. The objective of the experiment was to evaluate the effect of various rates of imazapic on purple nutsedge tuber production. Single presprouted purple nutsedge tubers were transplanted into outdoor microplots and treated after 6 wk of growth with six rates of imazapic (5 to 140 g ai ha−1) POST. A nontreated control was included. All emerged shoots at the time of application were marked with plastic rings; this allowed for classification of tubers at exhumation as (1) tubers attached to shoots that were emerged at time of application, (2) tubers attached to shoots that emerged after application, and (3) tubers without an aerial shoot during the study. At 7 wk after application, the tubers in the microplots were exhumed, classified, and quantified, and their ability to sprout was evaluated. In the nontreated control, there were 544 total tubers, with a log-logistic regression model describing the declining tuber population with increasing imazapic rate. The rate of imazapic that reduced total tuber population 50% (I50) was 36 g ha−1. In the nontreated control, there were 161 tubers attached to shoots that emerged, as when compared with plots that received an imazapic application that had an I50=60 g ha−1. Viability of purple nutsedge tubers was 44% at 70 g ha−1 imazapic, suggesting the action of the herbicide may have rendered the tubers nonviable after new shoots were produced. The final classification of tubers included those that did not have an aerial shoot during the study. These were tubers in which apical dominance suppressed shoot development or were likely the most recent tubers to develop. Of the three classes, the tubers without shoots were the most prevalent in the nontreated control, with 358 tubers and an I50=18 g ha−1. Imazapic controls purple nutsedge foliage but also reduces the number of new tubers produced, and overall tuber viability and is a valuable tool in management of the long-term population density of this weed.

Maximizing cereal rye biomass has been recommended for weed suppression in cover crop–based organic no-till planted soybean; however, achieving high biomass can be challenging, and thick mulch can interfere with soybean seed placement. An experiment was conducted from 2012 to 2014 in New York to test whether mixing barley and cereal rye would (1) increase weed suppression via enhanced shading prior to termination and (2) provide acceptable weed suppression at lower cover crop biomass levels compared with cereal rye alone. This experiment was also designed to assess high-residue cultivation as a supplemental weed management tool. Barley and cereal rye were seeded in a replacement series, and a split-block design with four replications was used with management treatments as main plots and cover crop seeding ratio treatments (barley:cereal rye, 0:100, 50:50, and 100:0) as subplots. Management treatments included high-residue cultivation and standard no-till management without high-residue cultivation. Despite wider leaves in barley, mixing the species did not increase shading, and cereal rye dominated cover crop biomass in the 50:50 mixtures in 2013 and 2014, representing 82 and 93% of the biomass, respectively. Across all treatments, average weed biomass (primarily common ragweed, giant foxtail, and yellow foxtail) in late summer ranged from 0.5 to 1.1 Mg ha−1 in 2013 and 0.6 to 1.3 Mg ha−1 in 2014, and weed biomass tended to decrease as the proportion of cereal rye, and thus total cover crop biomass, increased. However, soybean population also decreased by 29,100 plants ha−1 for every 1 Mg ha−1 increase in cover crop biomass in 2013 (P=0.05). There was no relationship between cover crop biomass and soybean population in 2014 (P=0.35). Soybean yield under no-till management averaged 2.9 Mg ha−1 in 2013 and 2.6 Mg ha−1 in 2014 and was not affected by cover crop ratio or management treatment. Partial correlation analyses demonstrated that shading from cover crops prior to termination explained more variation in weed biomass than cover crop biomass. Our results indicate that cover crop management practices that enhance shading at slightly lower cover crop biomass levels might reduce the challenges associated with excessive biomass production without sacrificing weed suppression in organic no-till planted soybean.

Adoption of soybean that is resistant to 2,4-D will result in more use of glyphosate plus 2,4-D premixes and tank mixtures. Preliminary whole-plant greenhouse assays confirm most Palmer amaranth populations found in Indiana are glyphosate-resistant (GR), and some biotypes exhibit tolerance to 2,4-D amine. Dose–response experiments were conducted to determine the level of glyphosate resistance and 2,4-D amine tolerance in four Palmer amaranth biotypes. A premix formulation of glyphosate plus 2,4-D choline was also evaluated. The R1, R2, and R3 biotypes were 31- to 66-fold more resistant to glyphosate (R:S ratio) than the S1 biotype based on the herbicide dose to cause 90% mortality (LD90). The maximum POST rate of the premix formulation of Enlist Duo® labeled in ‘Enlist®’ soybean is 2,195 g ae ha−1. When separated by active ingredient, the maximum POST rate of Enlist Duo® is equivalent to 1,141 and 1,054 g ae ha−1 of glyphosate and 2,4-D choline, respectively. In the absence of glyphosate, the maximum rate of 2,4-D (1,054 g ae ha−1) in the premix formulation of Enlist Duo® controlled S1, R2, and R3 biotypes, but failed to control all plants from the R1 biotype. Estimates for LD90 showed the R1 biotype was 3-fold more tolerant than the S1 biotype to 2,4-D amine. However, no plants survived the 1,155 g ae ha−1 (600 g ae ha−1 of glyphosate plus 555 g ae ha−1 2,4-D) treatment with the premix formulation of glyphosate plus 2,4-D choline. Overall, results from this experiment suggest GR Palmer amaranth that also exhibits increased tolerance to 2,4-D amine will be difficult to control with glyphosate or 2,4-D alone, but can be controlled POST with Enlist Duo® at lower than labeled field rates (1,618 to 2,195 g ae ha−1).

Weeds are ubiquitous and economically damaging in southern U.S. rice systems. Barnyardgrass has consistently been one of the most prevalent and troublesome of these. Although most rice cultivars do not suppress weeds dramatically, certain Indica cultivars and commercial hybrids are known to suppress barnyardgrass aggressively in conventional, drill-seeded rice systems in the southern United States. A field study was conducted to determine the degree to which either reducing or increasing standard seeding rates would affect natural suppression of weeds by conventional inbred and weed-suppressive cultivars. Five cultivars were evaluated at three seeding rates (160 [low], 320 [medium; conventional recommendation for inbred cultivars], and 480 [high] seeds m−2) and two weed levels (weed-free and weedy). Cultivars included a conventional, non–weed suppressive long-grain, ‘Wells’; high-tillering weed-suppressive cultivars ‘PI312777,’ ‘Rondo,’ and ‘4612’ from Asia; and the commercial hybrid ‘XL723.’ Overall, PI 312777 produced the most tillers, whereas XL 723 exhibited the greatest midseason shoot biomass and the greatest weed suppression. Yields of PI 312777 and 4612, both of which are Indica cultivars considered to be good weed suppressors, changed minimally across all seeding rates when compared with the other cultivars and thus tolerated weeds at the low rate nearly as well as at the high rate. Such a tolerance to weeds might be useful in the maintenance of weed suppression at reduced rice-seeding rates and suggests that reduced seeding rates of PI 312777 and 4612 would be less risky for yield loss when compared with the other cultivars tested. Visual suppression ratings were positively correlated with rice yield within weed-infested plots, suggesting that yield performance under weed pressure might be a good indicator of weed-suppression ability of cultivars in these systems. In contrast with PI 312777 and 4612, yields of the conventional inbred cultivar and commercial hybrid appeared to benefit from the high seeding rate. Overall, moderate to high seeding rates are likely to be needed for consistent weed suppression for all of the cultivar types evaluated in this study.

Four early-generation backcross populations (BC1F2) derived from one common recipient parental background, Weed Tolerant Rice 1 (‘WTR1’), and four different donor parents (‘Y134’, ‘Zhong 143’, ‘Khazar’, and ‘Cheng Hui-448’) were tested to identify suitable donor and recipient parents for weed competitiveness and to standardize evaluation of the weed-competitive ability in rice. ‘GSR IR2-6’ (G-6) derived from a backcross of WTR1/Y134//WTR1 was selected as the best population and was advanced for phenotypic experiments in the 2014 dry season. The introgression lines (ILs) derived from the G-6 population were evaluated for seed germination and seedling vigor in greenhouse conditions and for weed-competitive ability under field conditions (upland weed-free, upland weedy, and lowland weedy). Parents and checks were included for comparison. Selection pressure for weed competitiveness was relatively stronger in upland conditions than in lowland conditions. After three rounds of selection and based on their relative grain yield performances across conditions, a total of 21 most-promising introgression fixed lines showing superior traits and weed-competitive ability were identified. G-6-L2-WL-3, G-6-RF6-WL-3, G-6-L15-WU-1,G-6-Y16-WL-2, and G-6-L6-WU-3 were the top ILs in lowland weedy conditions, whereas G-6-Y7-WL-3, G-6-Y6-WU-3, G-6-Y3-WL-3, and G-6-Y8-WU-1 were the highest yielding in upland weedy conditions. The use of weed-competitive rice cultivars in African and Asian countries will be a highly effective strategy to reduce production costs and provide alternative solutions to the unavailability of herbicides. Competitive rice varieties will also significantly improve grain yields in aerobic rice systems and can become an important strategy for successful upland rice production.

Hound’s-tongue is an invasive, biennial weed that thrives in dry rangelands of British Columbia. Rosette formation in the first year of growth and a deep root system offer this weed a competitive advantage against associated grasses under dry conditions. To study effects of water stress on seedling growth and mycorrhizal colonization in hound’s-tongue, seedlings of this weed were grown in pots in a greenhouse and subjected to four (100, 80, 60, and 40% of field capacity) soil moisture treatments. Effects of soil moisture stress (SMS) on several growth parameters as well as mycorrhizal colonization of roots were studied. The total biomass, shoot and root fresh and dry weights, leaf number, petiole length, leaf area, and specific leaf weight (leaf dry weight per unit leaf area) decreased with increasing SMS; shoot and root water content was not affected. Because of a greater effect of SMS on root compared with the shoot biomass, shoot:root ratio increased as the moisture stress increased. Water stress decreased mycorrhizal colonization and arbuscule and vesicle abundance. A reduction in total biomass, leaf number and leaf area per plant, petiole length, and mycorrhizal colonization may reduce the competitive advantage of hound’s-tongue over its neighbors under drought conditions. The effect on plant size may also influence herbivory, by biocontrol agents and other herbivores, and fecundity of this weed.

Intercropping with functionally diverse crops can reduce the availability of resources that could otherwise be used by weeds. An experiment was conducted across 6 site-years in New York and Maryland in 2013 and 2014 to examine the effects of functional diversity and crop species richness on weed suppression. We compared four annual crop species that differed in stature and nitrogen acquisition traits: (1) pearl millet, (2) sorghum sudangrass, (3) cowpea, and (4) sunn hemp. Crops were seeded in monoculture and in three- and four-species mixtures using a replacement design in which monoculture seeding rates were divided by the number of species in the intercrop. Crop and weed biomass were sampled at ~45 and 90 d after planting. At the first sampling date, intercrops produced more crop biomass than monocultures in all but 1 site-year; however, weed biomass in intercrops was lower than monocultures in only 1 site-year. By the second sampling date, crop biomass was consistently greater in the intercrops than in the monocultures, and weed biomass was lower in the intercrops than in monocultures in 2 site-years. Although we observed several negative relationships between crop species richness and weed biomass, crop biomass was a more important factor than species richness for suppressing weeds. Despite the weak weed suppression from the two legumes compared with the two grasses, legume crops can provide other benefits, including increased forage quality, soil nitrogen for subsequent crops, and resources for pollinators if allowed to flower. On the other hand, if weed suppression is the top priority, our results suggest that monocultures of high biomass–producing grasses will provide more effective suppression at a lower seed cost than functionally diverse intercrops that include low biomass–producing legumes in warm-season intercrops.

Synthetic rubbers, synthetic plastic polymers (polyvinyl chlorides [PVC]), polyurethane blends, and polyethylene blends make up modern-day agricultural spray hoses. The objective of this study was to determine whether agricultural hose types would differ with respect to 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid (dicamba) sequestration. Field and greenhouse studies were conducted to evaluate the sequestration potential of dicamba within five agricultural hose types when cleaned with different cleanout procedures. Rinsate solutions were applied to soybean, which was used as a bio-indicator to test for cleanout efficiency. Differences among hose types and cleanout procedures exist with observations including soybean injury, height reduction, dry matter, yield, and part per million by volume (ppmv) analyte retained. The makeup of PVC polyurethane-blend and synthetic rubber–blend hoses increased retention of dicamba analyte when compared with the polyethylene blend hose. No differences were observed after the addition of ammonia to the cleanout solution when compared with water alone. Differences in a hose type’s ability to sequester the dicamba analyte may have more to do with the hose’s internal chemical composition, manufacturing process, and composition breakdown. Scanning electron microscopy revealed imperfections in new PVC polyurethane and synthetic rubber hoses that eventually lead to inner wall depletion of these hose types. This is in contrast to what was found in the polyethylene-blend hose type, in which the inner wall is smooth and free of imperfections.

Common ragweed is a troublesome allergenic invader and noxious weed of several crops. Despite extensive research to understand the factors affecting its invasion, the role of environmental stresses and soil types on survival and growth is poorly understood. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of drought, salinity, and soil types on survival, growth, and nutrient uptake of ragweed in greenhouse experiments to predict its invasiveness in Turkey. Three separate experiments, with five drought intensities (100, 75, 50, 25, and 12.5% of field capacity [FC]), four levels of salinity (0, 3, 6, and 12 dS m−1), and five soil types varying in sand, silt, and clay content were performed. Severe drought and salinity levels reduced seedling survival, while soil type had no effect. Increasing drought and salinity negatively affected growth and nutrient uptake; the poorest growth was observed under severe drought intensity. Ragweed exhibited intensive tolerance to drought, even severe levels, while it tolerated salinity up to 6 dS m−1 for seedling survival. Growth was negatively affected above 3 dS m−1. The highest and lowest nutrient accumulations were recorded under moderate and extreme drought intensities, respectively. Similarly, the highest Na accumulation was observed under extreme saline conditions, whereas the highest P uptake and K/Na ratio were achieved under nonsaline conditions (0 dS m−1). Variation of soil texture had no effect on growth and nutrient uptake. The highest Ca, Mg, and Na accumulations were recorded on clay soil, while higher P accrued on sandy-loam soil. Increased tolerance of ragweed to severe drought and moderate salinity and its nonselective nature for soil type indicate that semiarid and partially arid regions in Turkey have plenty of vacant niches for ragweed invasion.

Weed diversity, structure, and distribution within and outside agricultural fields affect not only ecological processes but also weed management strategies. We studied how areas managed differently within and outside the field determine weed communities in a sugarcane cropping system in the dry tropics of Costa Rica. A total of 120 weed species were detected, which was similar to surveys conducted in subtropical and temperate conditions. Weed species richness was highest in undisturbed field borders and lowest in rows and furrows. The area where tractors turn within the field (turn area) had similar richness compared with the borders, despite being one of the most disturbed management areas studied. The most predominant weed species were divided between generalists and species that exhibited clear preferences for management area or soil texture. Soil texture was more important for determining weed community structure than management area when considering weed species affecting weed control decisions. The results indicated that disturbance in the management area and, especially, weed control practices are critical factors affecting weed diversity, but availability of resources for weed growth such as nutrients, soil moisture, and light can mitigate some of the limitations imposed by weed control on weed diversity, especially in the turn area. Differences in weed communities between management areas within fields indicated the existence of conditions that favor key weed species, and this information can be used to anticipate their population growth and help determine when and where more intensive control should be implemented.