This study evaluates a working hypothesis held by a number of second-language researchers that second-language learners progress in their acquisition of target language structure by observing regularities in their input, implicitly forming hypotheses, testing those hypotheses against further input, and revising some while dropping others as a result of their fit with the input. The study considers four possible sources for variability encountered in learner language: (1) the situation(s) in which particular forms are produced; (2) the learner's encoding and decoding capabilities; (3) the target language itself, whereby systematicity at one level may leave variability at another; and (4) the analyst and procedural decisions that may effect the perception of variability. The study concludes that the analyst's task must match in complexity that of the language learner if the fullness of the learner's accomplishments is to be captured accurately.

Institutionalized “non-native” varieties of English have developed in countries such as Nigeria and India, where English is widely used as a second, often official, language in a broad range of intranational domains. These varieties are characterized by “nativization” (Kachru, 1981a): systematic changes in their formal features at all linguistic levels, which result from the use of English in new sociocultural settings, in contact with other languages, and in the absence of native speakers of English. This paper demonstrates how non-native varieties are distinct from interlanguages or approximative systems of “established” (Platt & Weber, 1980) varieties of English (e.g., British or American). Crucial differences are illustrated in strategies common to both nativization and second language acquisition—generalization of rules in the established varieties of English and transfer of linguistic features from other languages—in terms of linguistic contexts in which they apply and motivations underlying their application. A survey of positive attitudes toward non-native varieties among their users indicates that certain nativized features are becoming new norms for English usage in many countries. These strategies of and attitudes toward nativization are shown to have important implications for the teaching of English as a second language and for linguistic theory.

Knowledge of a second language includes knowledge of syntax, phonology, lexicon, and so forth. While there is no a priori reason to assume that abilities in these areas develop independently of one another, most studies dealing with the acquisition of L2 grammars treat each of these components singly. In fact, Long and Sato (1984) call for more studies investigating the ways in which grammatical components interact in the acquisition of a second language. This paper deals with the complex issue of sentence processing in an L2, showing how L2 learners resolve the problem of competing factors of syntax, semantics, and pragmatics in the processing of L2 utterances. We present the results of a study involving sentence interpretation of compex sentences by 111 L2 learners of English and suggest that the acquisition of syntax, semantics, and pragmatics is an interactive phenomenon. It is further suggested that part of learning the syntax of a language is not only learning the word-order configurations of the language, but also learning the importance of word order in a given language in relation to semantic and pragmatic factors.

In this paper empirical data are presented that demonstrate significant differences in the manner in which two commonly used experimental tasks evaluate developing linguistic competence in adult second language (L2) learners. Results indicate that production tests principally evaluate a learner's developing structural competence in the L2. On the other hand, comprehension tests provide a less direct measure of structural competence and are significantly influenced by pragmatic context.

Fifty-one adult Spanish speakers at three levels of ESL ability were tested in both their elicited imitation (production) and act-out (comprehension) of complex sentences that were structurally identical. The stimuli varied in terms of the pre- and post-posing of a subordinate adverbial when clause and in terms of the direction of pronoun anaphora (forward and backward). Results from the production test indicate a significant effect of directionality, i.e., a preference for forward pronouns in post-posed clauses at the intermediate level. Results from the comprehension test did not show a significant directionality constraint at any level. They did, however, demonstrate a significant effect due to the use of a biasing pragmatic lead. Such findings are comparable to those found in early first language acquisition (Lust, Loveland, & Kornet, 1980). Implications of these findings for experimental methodology are discussed.

This paper investigates the theoretical and applied domains of pragmatic failure. With respect to theory, it further clarifies pragmatic failure both in native and non-native speech, and with respect to the applied domain compares request realizations of native and non-native speakers in terms of length of utterance. In discussing the results of this comparison, a number of hypotheses are put forward concerning the ways in which deviation from native norms of utterance length might be a potential cause for pragmatic failure.

The data were collected within the CCSARP (Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Pattern) project involving seven different languages and dialects (Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984). The data were collected from both native and non-native speakers of each of the languages. The analysis of responses across several languages revealed a systematic difference in length of utterance used to realize speech acts by non-native speakers as compared to native speakers. The types of pragmatic failure that might be linked to being a non-native speaker are examined, thus continuing a line of research focusing on the pragmatic aspects of interlanguage (Blum-Kulka, 1982; Thomas, 1983; Edmondson et al., 1984).

The description of second language acquisition by adult immigrants in a natural setting raises specific methodological questions. This paper attempts to clarify some of these problems using the European Project data (Perdue, 1982) in three different areas: (1) the acquisition and use of the over-generalized marker <se> (c'est in target French); (2) the acquisition of reference to time; and (3) the acquisition of reference to space by adult Spanish speakers in France.

Typological markedness has been suggested as a possible explanation or a means of predicting the development of Interlanguage (IL) syntax (Eckman, 1977; Hyltenstam, 1978, 1984; Rutherford, 1982). More specifically, the Accessibility Hierarchy (AH) (Keenan & Comrie, 1977, 1979) has been used to predict the acquisitional order of relative clauses in a second language (Hyltenstam, 1984). No research, however, has been conducted to investigate the possible influence of learning context on relative clause (RC) formation. In this study, English relative clauses were elicited from two groups of Italian learners. The first group was composed of 48 formal learners and the second group of 38 informal learners. It was hypothesized that the order as predicted by the AH would be yielded by both groups with the formal group's IL exhibiting more marked structures than the informal group's. The type of discourse—planned versus unplanned—to which learners were mostly exposed was thought to have an effect on the level of linguistic elaboration achieved.

This paper reports the results of a study which investigated (a) the separate effects that differences in learners' contact can have on various aspects of proficiency, and (b) the combined effects that differences in informal contact and instructional variation can have on improvement in proficiency. Forty-eight adult learners from three intermediate-level ESL classes participated in the study.

To measure differences in learners' informal contact, a language contact questionnaire was administered. The results revealed both quantitative and qualitative differences in learners' out-of-class contact with the second language. When these differences were examined in relation to learners' performance on seven proficiency measures, correlational analysis revealed that while learners' performance on some measures was related to differences in amount of contact, it was related on other measures to differences in type of contact.

To determine whether differences in contact interacted with instructional variation to produce differences in improvement in proficiency, learners' pre-and post-test scores were examined in relation to contact and class in an analysis of co-variance. The results indicated that learners' informal contact interacted with differences in instruction to produce variation in improvement on two proficiency measures.

The findings are discussed in relation to the need for more class-room-centered research to investigate both the separate and combined effects of learner and instructional variables on second language proficiency.

This paper discusses current literature dealing with the pedagogical implications of the ACTFL Provisional Proficiency Guidelines. In Higgs and Clifford (1982) and Omaggio (1984), for example, it is argued that grammatical accuracy needs to be stressed from the beginning of instruction. In this paper those arguments are reviewed in the light of second language acquisition research, and it is suggested that such emphasis on grammatical correctness is unwarranted.

It has been observed that learners of French as a second language at different stages of the acquisition process tend to use forms and rules that are comparable to those of French-based creoles or pid-ginized French. The more advanced learners employ rules and forms akin to dialectal variants of French or to French as spoken in isolated areas such as Old Mines, Missouri. The learners produce non-standard forms considered unacceptable by the purist tradition of French grammarians. It has been noted that the observed similarities between interlanguage, regional dialects, etc., occur in given “sensitive” zones of French morphology and syntax such as the use of verbs and auxiliaries, morphology and placement of clitic pronouns, over-generalization of given prepositions, those very areas which are problematic in the acquisition of French as L1. Since the 17th century, these have been the object of a strict codification by purist grammarians who disregard actual usage in various dialects. It is hypothesized that such similarities between the interlanguage forms at various stages of development, French regional dialects, and areas of conflict over the elaboration of norms in standard French can be partly accounted for if one considers the dynamics of the target language. To explain the functioning of this process, we posit a “system” comprising the learner-speaker, the specific linguistic system itself (including pressure to conform to the norm), and the interactions with native speakers. Through self-regulation, this system devises solutions which perforce pertain to that common area which in any language is at the crossroads of variation, language change, and acquisition. This hypothetical zone (called français zéro by Chaudenson, 1984) is the point of convergence of the self-regulating processes which are responsible for the formal and functional similarities between French-based interlanguages, language change, norm conflicts in the standardization of French, and the creolization process.

The free written recall task is used in much current L2 reading research (Bernhardt, 1983; Carrell, 1983, 1984a, 1984b; Connor, 1984; Lee & Ballman, in press). An examination of the work using this task as a measure of comprehension reveals variation in design and findings: measurement of quantity recalled, method of textual analysis, the language used to recall, the level of the learners, and pre-reading instructions given. The purpose of this paper is: (1) to elaborate the differences between studies using a free written recall task to measure L2 reading comprehension; and (2) to report the results of experimentation that attempts to test the significance of the language of recall (native versus target) and the effect of knowing, prior to reading, that the subjects would be required to recall the passage. Results showed that passage recall is significantly better when done in the subjects' native language than in the target language. Also, a significant interaction was found for prereading instructions and level of the learner. Implications for research design are discussed.

Although previous work has analyzed the communication strategies (CS) of L2 learners (e.g., Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Tarone, 1980, 1977), this research is an attempt at studying CS used by both 12 speakers and their interviewers during a videotaped interview. Fifty-three beginning French learners were interviewed and the videotape was analyzed for CS used by both interactants; learners' performance was also rated (ACTFL, 1982). Subjects were instructed either by Total Physical Response (Asher, 1977, 1969) or Strategic Interaction (SI) (Di Pietro, 1982, 1979).

Data were subjected to correlational and MANOVA analyses. Significant differences were detected between groups. In general, the higher the proficiency rating, the lower was the use of CS. The method of instruction appeared to have an important bearing on amount and kind of CS used and on proficiency ratings received. SI students and their interviewers used fewer CS; SI learners also received higher ratings.

It appears that SI facilitated students' development of at least two underlying competencies, linguistic and interactional (Palmer, 1979; Canale & Swain, 1980). It is also posited that SI students' diminished use of CS indicates a higher degree of control over the activity, as proposed by the Vygotskian paradigm (Vygotsky, 1962).

In this article the foreign language classroom is argued to be a legitimate and important arena for educational and linguistic research. First, a survey of the research which has been conducted in France on the analysis of the foreign language classroom is presented. Secondly, two research projects currently underway at the University of Paris VIII are discussed. The first looks at the foreign language classroom through diary studies, and the second, through classroom analysis by teachers and pupils.

Careful observation of the speech of even advanced learners of English often reveals usage that deviates in some way from the target language. One area of difficulty appears to be the system of modality that includes such forms as must, have to, should, had better, can, and may, among others. Some errors are purely grammatical in nature. For example: (1) (a) In fact, they musted to return back home.

(b) Perhaps if I went to France maybe I can do it.

Others are not so much ungrammatical as inappropriate. For example, (2) (a) Should I give you the receipt for this? uttered by a bank teller should actually have been shall, since the teller was not really asking me for my advice but was trying to find out whether I wanted the receipt. In (2b), (2) (b) I should take this English class.

the student was actually trying to ascertain which section of a class to sign up for, and really needed to convey that he was required to take that particular class. In order to ascertain the possible cause for these persistent misuses of the modals, several measures of modal usage were developed and administered to groups of native and non-native speakers. The results showed that the understanding non-natives have of expressions of modality is qualitatively different from the understanding of natives. Some possible causes for this discrepancy in understanding are suggested along with possible solutions for remedying the problem.

In this article, the bilingual speech of members of Spanish, Portuguese, and Algerian communities in France is examined. After having conducted a systematic inventory of all the instances of code-switching in the corpus, the authors propose a model for their classification. This is followed by a quantitative analysis of a sample of interactions. Finally, a qualitative analysis is presented which aims to determine the different functions fulfilled by code-switching according to the speaker's intentions and the dynamics of the interaction.