The visit of Commander Perry's American fleet in 1853, followed by visits of European oceanographic research vessels, initiated Japanese interest in oceanography. Fortunately, because of a long maritime history and experience, such advanced sciences were speedily and easily absorbed in Japan. The U.S.S. Tuscarora (1874) discovered the Tuscarora Trough in the Japan Trench during her trans-Pacific sounding cruise as a preliminary to laying a submarine cable. During her epoch-making scientific expedition around the world (1872–76) the British Challenger visited Japan in 1875 and surveyed parts of the Inland Sea. This was followed by the Swedish Vega Expedition (1879) which first cruised across the Arctic Ocean to Tokyo, the Russian Vitiaz Expedition (1886–89) in the Japan Sea, etc., and the USA Albatross Expedition (1888–97) in the northern waters and Japan Sea.

The major rock types which comprise the Outer Hebrides are described and the geological history of the region is discussed. The control exercised by the variations in structure and lithology on the topography is illustrated and an assessment made of the economic potential of the various rock units.

The world's oceans continue to play a vital part in man's history on this planet. There is no doubt that in the long process of evolution man's early ancestors left the sea for the land. There is evidence too that some of these having progressed to the mammal stage returned to the sea to produce the dolphins, whales and seals. Some biologists believe that man's predecessors did likewise. Being driven by a shortage of food, they ventured into the shallow coastal waters to collect shell fish and other accessible sea food. During this period they lost much of their fur and learnt to swim. Unlike the aquatic mammals, they remained land animals. It must also be assumed that primitive man developed a great fear of the sea which remained with him even after he had developed the use of boats. Its storms, its vastness, its tides and its currents must have filled him with awe. Even in modern times seafaring occupations are considered hazardous pursuits and drowning as a cause of death is greatly dreaded. In the simple man's mind the dark ocean depths with unpredictable moods of violence create a sense of fear subconsciously supported by the fact that the newly born human being emerges from the dark and watery confines of the womb wherein it has, in its development, recapitulated the pattern of man's evolution. To return to explore the sea would be to retreat into the timeless past. It is not surprising, therefore, that extensive exploration of the sea and sea bed has lagged behind the extension of man's activity over the great land masses, the conquest of the highest mountains, the development of flight and in later years the conquest of space.

When the Royal Society of Edinburgh was founded, the art of beer brewing had already been practised for well ov,er five thousand years, initially in Mesopotamia, then in Egypt and, for the last two millennia, in Continental Europe and in Britain. The procedures used were —and still are —essentially simple. First, barley is malted by growing the grain to allow it to form an assortment of enzymes, some of which, particularly the proteinases and β-glucanases, gradually free the starch granules of the endosperm from their enclosing organic matrix. The enzyme-amylase is also synthesised during malting and, though it has a limited action on the starch in the intact grain, it assumes major importance later during mashing. As a result of the enzymic activity during malting, the endosperm becomes friable instead of tough and the germinated barley, now known as malt, is kiln-dried so that it can be safely stored.

Spruce plants (one clone of Picea abies (L.) Karst.) were exposed in environmental chambers to different levels of ozone for 42 days to study the influences of enhanced ozone on root tip chromosomes directly after fumigation had ceased. No visible symptoms resulted from these treatments. The classification of chromosomal aberrations was used as a method to characterise the influences on the root tips caused by ozone. In comparison to the control the fumigated variant showed an increased number of chromosomal abnormalities. Another clone of Picea was used to investigate the ‘post-fumigation long-term effect’ in the genetic material caused by enhanced ozone. These clonal trees appeared to be relatively ozone-sensitive, as pigment reduction and chlorotic spots were observed directly after fumigation had ceased. The spruce trees were also exposed in environmental chambers to different levels of ozone for 24 weeks and then they were transferred to a field near the Institute. Some 21 months after the fumigation had ceased those trees that had been fumigated showed an increased number of chromosomal aberrations compared with the control.

The observed chromosomal abnormalities in all the variants of the experiments consisted of chromosomal ‘stickiness’, chromosome breakage, and fragmentation.

Sand dunes occur extensively around the coastline of Great Britain and in a wide variety of forms. Management for nature conservation is influenced by a long-term historical perspective which has led to a continued policy of protection. It has aimed firstly to prevent damaging developments such as building and orestry, and secondly to control excessive erosion brought about predominantly by man's own activities. However, an assessment of current nature conservation management problems suggests that at many sites in Great Britain over-stabilisation may be as much a problem as erosion. The implications for management in the face of other competing demands is discussed.

The distribution of soil parent materials in relation to glaciological features is dealt with; from the scoured bare rock of Harris products of Tertiary weathering have been transported northwards and deposited as coarse textured till which underlies the Lewis till plain. Clayey till in the north of Lewis would appear to be deposited by mainland ice which crossed the area. The dominant genetic soil found throughout the islands is a peaty podzol with iron pan which contains an intensely indurated horizon. Peat formation has developed on this soil as a result of the acidity of the parent material and anaerobic waterlogged conditions. Only on well sloping sites were peaty podzol soils with free drainage beneath the pan observed, otherwise the peaty podzol with very poor drainage beneath the pan is better described as a peaty gley soil. Brown earth soils were seen only on ultra-basic rocks on markedly sloping sites.

As a result of exposure and frequent high winds the calcareous dunes of the machair are unstable. Fresh sand is deposited on the dry back slopes with a diluent effect on soil fertility. Areas of the machair having imperfect rather than poor drainage provide some of the best arable land which would be rated as Class 3 in the Land Use Capability Classification of the Soil Survey.

Information concerning the carcinogenicity of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) in different species and organs is reviewed. Various methods used in attempts to identify the plant components responsible are described and the results evaluated. Reference is made to recent and current research in this field (University College of North Wales, Bangor) and includes mutagenic and sterility studies, and the introduction of teratogenic screening by injection of Japanese quail eggs. The many problems still challenging bracken workers are indicated, and a final section deals with the potential hazard to human health in an attempt to link experimental work with epidemiological surveys of human cancer incidence. One important result of the study of bracken carcinogenicity is that active components, previously thought to be harmless, can be found in a wide variety of regular dietary items.

Two features of the effects of salinity on the bacterial flora of the Tay estuary are considered. First the effect of salinity on the size and species composition of the resident microfiora at various sites within the estuary. The second part is concerned with data obtained from laboratory experiments designed to study the effects of subjecting marine and freshwater bacteria, isolated from the Tay, to salt stress.

During periods of sustained moderate river discharge and quiescent marine conditions little external suspended sediment enters the estuarine circulation of the Tay. That material which is in suspension is largely derived from the estuary margins where tidal currents superimposed by wind-induced waves are competent to resuspend fine material from the surface of the ‘mud’ flats and erode bedded silts from the incised banks of minor channels and runnels draining them. The quantities of this sediment entering the system are largely determined by tidal state and amplitude, as well as wind velocity.

On spring tides the flats are entirely covered at high water, and dry out completely at low water. The volume of water and its areal coverage at high tide ensures that, during the ebb, water charged with high concentrations of suspended sediment is directed from the fiats into the surface and middepth waters of the main channel. This process acting along the 20 km length of the channel flanking the ‘mud’ flats, combined with the low tide ‘ponding effect’ caused by the tide flooding from the sea while the upper estuarine water is still ebbing, results in the cumulative formation of a zone of high suspended sediment concentrations (turbidity maximum). As the flood tide becomes fully established the zone is diluted and dispersed. During neap tides the same processes operate, but because a smaller area of the flats is covered at high water and uncovered at low water, and because neap tidal current speeds are lower than those for spring tides, two proportionally weaker zones are recognised.

Following periods of sustained moderate river discharge, quiet sea conditions and calm weather, suspended sediment concentrations in the Tay are negligible irrespective of tidal state or amplitude.

There is considerable interest in the cultivation of salmonids in several countries. In Norway it is now a question of rate of expansion rather than a question of whether this industry will develop or not. Interest is turning more and more towards sea farming based on Atlantic salmon rather than on rainbow trout.

One of the most important economic factors in fish fanning is the producing ability of the fish. It is essential for the future expansion of fish farming that one develops a more productive animal which is better adapted to captivity.

The variability of the pubescent birch and the probable existence of hybrids between it and two other birches make it a difficult species to classify at an infraspecific level. To some extent, the variation is geographical and to cover its distribution, three subspecies are proposed by the authors of Flora Europaea, sspp. pubescens, carpatica and tortuosa. Two subspecies are recognized in Britain, namely ssp. pubescens and ssp. odorata, but some confusion has arisen through the undetermined relationships between sspp. odorata, carpatica and tortuosa. The rejection of ssp. odorata is proposed as its application, in this case, differs from that intended by J. M. Bechstein, the original authority. An examination of the literature indicates that ssp. tortuosa and ssp. carpatica are probably indistinguishable (a conclusion supported by multivariate analysis) and that the epithet tortuosa can be applied to both taxa. The pubescent birch in the Scottish Highlands may be referred to ssp. tortuosa and, in addition, the high frequency of small-leafed individuals in some populations in the northwest and at higher altitudes, justifies the further distinction of var. microphylla Hartman.

Previous work has shown a sex difference dependant upon œstrogen-androgen balance, in the rate of clearance by the fowl liver of intravenously administered sodium bromosulphthalein. Further observations reported here indicate an apparent rapid fluctuation of the Œ-A balance which takes place in immature chickens, both sexes snowing what is interpreted as hyperœstrogenization about the age of twelve weeks. Attention is drawn to other evidence that profound metabolic and hormonal changes occur at this stage. The effect of exogenous sex-hormones on the clearance rate of BSP has been further studied, particularly the influence of extra androgen on adult males with aberrant clearances unassociated with liver lesions. More evidence for the relation between the rate of BSP clearance and the Œ-A balance is provided by the study of the effect of cessation of ovulation on the clearance, and the effect of the development of virilizing tumours at the site of the rudimentary right ovary after left ovariectomy. Other changes which confirm hyperœstrogenization as assessed by the BSP clearance test are (a) decrease of the packed cell volume, (b) the development of a precipitable phospholipid in the plasma, (c) renal vascular changes, (d) adrenal cortical hyperplasia, (e) a frequent association with oviduct ligament “fibroids” and persistent cystic right oviducts.

The history of Edinburgh's sewage disposal to the sea from the open ditch system of the 17th century to the present day, together with the changes in legislation affecting sewage discharges to the firth, are reviewed. During the last thirty years sewage discharges have been monitored monthly for levels of faecal coliform bacteria at approximately thirty-four shore sites and twenty offshore sites. These coliform counts are used as bacteriological indicators of sewage pollution, in order to assess the risk to humans of infections that might result from the consumption of contaminated shellfish or from bathing in sewage-polluted waters. Most of the areas sampled from the inner firth were shown to be grossly polluted, particularly in late summer, and regularly to exceed guideline levels throughout the year. Since the commissioning of the new Seafield sewage works in 1979, a general improvement in bacterial and viral counts has been recorded on the south shore of the inner firth. In the last decade two European Community directives relating to the quality of seawater for bathing and shellfish growing have been promulgated, which set guideline and mandatory levels for the number of faecal coli in seawater. The Scottish Development Department has recently designated five beaches as bathing beaches and two areas on the north and south shores of the firth as shellfish growing areas. These areas have been regularly monitored by the Forth River Purification Board and the published results of both surveys are analysed. The virological studies carried out by the Forth Pollution Group of Napier College before and after the major change in the sewage discharge pattern into the Firth of Forth are reviewed.

Maps are shown to be the most striking way of displaying the distribution of marine species on a geographical scale. They have been used to indicate not only the presence or absence of a species, but also its abundance. A single map only records the distribution pattern at a particular moment in time, but repeated mapping clearly demonstrates temporal fluctuations. Many ecological insights have been derived from distribution maps especially when they are compared with records of environmental factors such as substratum type, current velocity or temperature. Moreover maps actually stimulate experimental work which seeks to explain the distribution patterns displayed.

Ectoparasites of poultry in the United Kingdom are reviewed. Mention is made of poultry ectoparasites occurring in other parts of the world and of some ectoparasites of British birds. In south west Scotland ectoparasite infestations appear to have decreased following the intensification of the poultry industry. Occasional outbreaks of Dermanyssus gallinae, the red mite and Ceratophyllus gallinae, the hen flea have occurred in modern poultry units. Cases of louse infestation with Menacanthus stramineus have also been observed from farmyard chickens and bantams. The damage caused by ectoparasites and their role in disease transmission is discussed.

Skin diseases of poultry caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses are reviewed. Skin conditions not induced by trauma are extremely rare in south west Scotland. Traumatic induced skin diseases still occur in modern poultry units and are associated with fighting or the use of poor materials in the structure of the house. Cases of staphylococcal wound infection and staphylococcal arthritis have been observed in poultry units where poor quality wire netting or hard spiky litter have been used as floor materials. Mention is also made of two pigeon diseases, pigeon pox and canker.

A large number of density measurements of the more important rock-types exposed at the surface in Ayrshire and certain neighbouring areas provide information for the interpretation of gravity measurements. The three methods employed of determining density are (1) laboratory measurements of rock samples, (2) gravimeter measurements in mineshafts, and (3) gravimeter measurements over topographic features.

The first method, the most widely used, is the only one applicable to many of the geological formations. A total of 600 specimens measured cover all the common rock types of the Lower and Upper Palaeozoic systems and their associated igneous rocks. Use of the second method is restricted to Carboniferous rocks, in which records from four mine-shafts—Littlemill 5, Mauchline I, Auchincruive I, and Houldsworth—cover much of the Carboniferous succession in south Ayrshire. The third method was seldom applied as there are few suitable topographic features, independent of geological structure, in Ayrshire.

The results of the measurements are summarized, and their reliability discussed. Two contrasts of rock density of regional importance occur in the sedimentary succession of south Ayrshire—the first at the plane of unconformity between Upper and Lower Old Red Sandstone, and the second between Lower Old Red Sandstone and the Lower Palaeozoic greywackes. A marked contrast of local importance occurs between the Permian sandstones of the Mauchline Basin and the underlying lavas and Carboniferous rocks. In north Ayrshire the most important density contrast lies between the Upper Palaeozoic sediments and the associated dense igneous rocks—the Clyde Plateau Lavas, the Millstone Grit lavas, and the thick dolerite intrusions.

A wide variety of normal and malignant mammalian cells, as well as inflammatory cells, release extracellular active oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. Both these species at low levels can stimulate growth and growth responses in a range of normal and malignant cell types. In order to assess the significance of such findings, superoxide dismutase and catalase were added exogenously to the culture medium of hamster (BHK-21) and rat (208F) fibroblasts (non-transformed or oncogene transformed). This resulted in a reduction of cell proliferation and increased cellular uptake of trypan blue stain, suggesting that superoxide and/or hydrogen peroxide may have important roles as extracellular ‘messengers’ promoting cell proliferation and maintaining cell viability. Superoxide dismutase mimics, like superoxide dismutase itself, are also cytostatic towards these cells and provide a basis for the development of tumour-specific antiproliferative drugs.

Fishing with both a shore seine net and a small otter trawl in the summer of 1943 and the spring of 1944 showed that the native fish population was very sparse. No estimate of the size of fish population was attempted in 1944. Estimates undertaken in 1945 and 1946 will be discussed later (p. 120). Fishing in the period June to September 1945 produced small numbers of fish tabulated on p. 110, and some plaice and flounders which will be dealt with separately.

In addition there were fairly large numbers of gobies, sticklebacks, pipe fish and sand eels which, however, were not usually recorded in our catches. Shoals of young herring appeared only in the summer and autumn of 1945.