The cougar Puma concolor was part of the pre-European fauna of the north-eastern USA. It was extirpated in the late 1800s and since the late 1900s there have been discussions concerning its reintroduction to the region. One site considered is Adirondack State Park in northern New York. In 1981 an assessment of the feasibility of returning cougars concluded that the Park had adequate prey and forest cover to support a small population of cougars but that conflicts with humans would cause the demise of this population within 10 years. Thus reintroduction at that time was not advised. Since then knowledge of cougar ecology and how cougars interact with humans has increased substantially. Based on information compiled since the 1980s I conducted a landscape-scale analysis to assess whether cougars could live in the Park. The results indicate that cougars could occupy 15,300–17,000 km2 (61–69%) of the Park, with minimal contact with human habitation. Based on reported cougar densities the Park could support a population of 150–350 cougars. These cougars would consume < 10% of the adult deer population annually and fawn production would be sufficient to replace these losses. Human and road densities in the Park are similar to those of the Black Hills, South Dakota and southern Florida, both of which have viable populations of cougars. I concluded that Adirondack State Park could support a population of cougars. What is now required is the will to bring them back.

Large ungulates across South-east Asia have been experiencing a rapid decline in recent decades because of overexploitation by humans. An absence of reliable data on the abundance and distribution of ungulates makes it difficult to assess the effectiveness of conservation efforts to recover their populations. As the principal prey for Endangered tigers Panthera tigris, depletion of wild ungulates is a major threat to the species' persistence and recovery across its range. This study estimated abundance and distribution of five ungulate taxa using a grid-based occupancy survey across a 3,000 km2 core zone within the 5,950 km2 Nam Et–Phou Louey National Protected Area in northern Lao. The results show an abundance index of 5.29 ± 0.30 ungulates per km2, with muntjac Munticus spp. and wild pig Sus spp. being most common, moderate levels of serow Capricornis milneedwardsii and sambar Cervus unicolor but few gaur Bos gaurus. This low abundance of medium- and large-sized ungulates at the site strongly suggests that strict control of hunting of these ungulates is important for securing their long-term survival as well as that of the tiger population that depends on them, which is currently the only known breeding population remaining in Indochina.

Global biodiversity declines and increasing rates of extinction necessitate the assessment and prediction of the vulnerability of species to extinction. Here, we examine the relationships between conservation status and ecological traits of reef fish species of the Brazilian biogeographical province. We used binomial tests and a logistic regression to address two questions. Do biological attributes differ between threatened and non-threatened fishes? Which combination of traits and impacts exerts greater influence on species threat status? Of the 559 species, 36 are categorized as threatened (compiled from global, national and local Red Lists). Three species are categorized as Critically Endangered, seven as Endangered and 26 as Vulnerable. Our analyses revealed that Elasmobranchii, sex-changing bony fishes and endemic species are the most vulnerable reef fishes in Brazilian waters. Body size and trophic category were identified as good predictors of the vulnerability of a species to extinction. Small-bodied species that are exploited by the ornamental trade and have complex reproductive strategies are also of concern. Such combinations of attributes could be of value in predicting which reef fish species elsewhere have a high risk of extinction.

Conservation interventions increasingly involve active management of relative species abundances, especially when taxa of conservation concern are threatened by complex food web interactions. Unfortunately, the complexity of such interspecific interactions means that well-meaning management interventions can have unexpected, sometimes detrimental, effects on the species they are intended to protect. Here we report that the abrupt removal of an abundant non-native prey species (domestic sheep) and the cessation of predator control, actions intended to protect huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus in the future Patagonia National Park, appear to have had negative effects on this Endangered ungulate. During and following the changes in predator–prey management, predation of huemul fawns and females older than 1 year by native culpeo foxes Lycalopex culpaeus and pumas Puma concolor increased 3- and 5-fold, respectively. Predictions from demographic models suggest that elevated mortality rates of female huemul older than 1 year will, on average, cause this population of huemul to decline. These results highlight risks of unintended consequences when aggressive management actions are taken to protect taxa embedded in complex food webs. They also suggest that careful consideration of both inter- and intra-trophic level effects among all species in a system is warranted before conservation interventions are undertaken.

Conservation efforts for Blakiston's fish owl Bubo blakistoni in Russia are limited, partly because habitat use by these rare owls is poorly known. We therefore studied nesting and foraging habitat characteristics of Blakiston's fish owls in Primorye, Russia. We sampled habitat at 14 nest sites, 12 nest stand sites and 13 random sites; we also sampled rivers within 14 fish owl home ranges across our 20,213 km2 study area. We found that large old trees and riparian old-growth forest were the primary characteristics of nest and foraging sites, respectively. Large trees were probably used as nest sites because they have cavities large enough to accommodate these birds. Big trees are also important because they are primary sources of large woody debris in rivers, which enhances suitable habitat for salmon, the owl's primary prey. Based on habitat characteristics, nest sites were correctly distinguished from random sites 74% (Kappa = 0.48) of the time, nest stands from random sites 56% (Kappa = 0.12) of the time, and used sites from available foraging sites 68% (Kappa = 0.36) of the time. The management and conservation of old-growth forests is essential for sustaining this species because they are central to the owls' nesting and foraging behaviour. Moreover, conservation of these forests sustains habitat for many other species.

Historically, the onager or Persian wild ass Equus hemionus onager, endemic to Iran, was widespread on the arid and semi-arid central steppes but only two natural populations remain. We estimated the population density of the onager in Qatruiyeh National Park using line transect distance sampling. Transects were surveyed on three plains in the Park and the results compared with total counts conducted by the Department of Environment. Our estimate (109 onagers per 100 km2; 95% confidence interval 67–179) is similar to that obtained by the total counts (137 onagers per 100 km2). Distance sampling is therefore a promising method for estimating the abundance of the onager. Using the annual censuses performed by the Department of Environment over the last 13 years we estimated that the population has a growth rate of 0.09. During the same period the onager population in the Touran Protected Complex has experienced a severe decline. The high density of onagers within the National Park indicates the unsuitability of adjacent habitats, including Bahram-e-Goor Protected Area, for this species. Lack of sufficient security and poorly distributed water sources appear to be the main reasons discouraging onagers from entering the Bahram-e-Goor Protected Area. We recommend and describe management interventions that could potentially assist in maintaining the last surviving onager populations in Iran.

The target of the 2002 IUCN Action Plan for the Cape mountain zebra Equus zebra zebra was for a population of 2,500 animals. We assessed the validity of this goal by reviewing the conservation status of the subspecies and the prospects of achieving larger populations. All subpopulations were identified and data on each were collected by means of a questionnaire survey. The total extant Cape mountain zebra population was found to consist of at least 2,790 individuals in 52 subpopulations. The target number of 2,500 has therefore been exceeded and this success is largely attributable to the private sector, as there are at present double the number of privately owned subpopulations (35) compared to formally protected subpopulations (17) and the percentage of the population on privately owned land rose from 14% in 1998 to 32% in 2009. The security of the subspecies is still of concern, however, as the growing proportion of the metapopulation on private land is more vulnerable to threats associated with small populations and management actions. The total existing area available to the Cape mountain zebra is > 935,191 ha and it could potentially support a considerably larger population. We conclude that the IUCN target is substantially below the potential for recovery of the Cape mountain zebra and we recommend this target be revised in the light of these findings. More comprehensive conservation strategies to address current and potential future threats are also needed.

The bush dog Speothos venaticus, a rarely seen Neotropical canid categorized as Near Threatened globally, is categorized as Vulnerable in Brazil. In the Atlantic Forest occurrence data of this species are extremely rare. Here we document new records of the bush dog in four reserves in a large remnant of continuous coastal Atlantic Forest in Paraná state, southern Brazil. From a total of 4,112 trap days in two camera-trap surveys in 2009 and 2011 we obtained one opportunistic sighting and three independent photographic records of the bush dog. Additionally, park guards reported previous sightings (>4 years earlier) in three of these reserves, including the reserve where we did not record the species. Our results indicate that the remnant coastal Atlantic Forest of Paraná state is an important region for the conservation of the bush dog in southern Brazil. Given the rarity of this species in its natural habitat we suggest that conservation efforts in this region should focus on minimizing the potential threats (prey depletion from poaching and disease transmission from domestic dog) to the species.

The conservation of threatened species poses many challenges but through cooperation and pooling of resources, individuals and organizations can work together to achieve better results. Here we describe our experience, working through a governmental and private alliance, studying one of the most threatened mammals in the Southern Cone. The huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus, one of two members of the Hippocamelus genus of South America, is endemic to Argentina and Chile and currently inhabits only a small fraction of its former range. Little is known about the huemul because it generally lives in remote areas with a harsh climate and rugged terrain. Using drive counts and fixed width transects over 5 consecutive years (2004–2008) we estimated density and abundance, and examined population changes and social structure, in three coastal huemul populations in the area of the Témpanos and Bernardo fjords of Bernardo O'Higgins National Park, Chile. Our results suggest that synergistic conservation actions, such as cattle removal and poaching control, can lead to the recovery of threatened huemul. The baseline information obtained from our surveys and the lessons learned through this governmental and private alliance will be useful for future monitoring of the huemul in the Patagonian fjords of Chile.

Methods that accurately estimate animal abundance or density are crucial for wildlife management. Although numerous techniques are available, there have been few comparisons of the precision and cost-effectiveness of different approaches. We assess the precision and cost of three methods for estimating densities of the Endangered Grevy's zebra Equus grevyi. We compare distance sampling and photographic capture–recapture, and a new technique, the random encounter model (REM) that uses camera-trap encounter rates to estimate density. All three methods provide comparable density estimates for Grevy's zebra and are preferable to the common practice of raw counts. Photographic capture–recapture is the most precise and line-transect distance sampling the least precise. Line transects and photographic capture–recapture surveys are cost-effective in the first year and REM is most cost-effective in the long-term. The methods used here for Grevy's zebra may be applied to other rangeland ungulates. We suggest that for single species monitoring programmes in which individuals can be identified, photographic capture–recapture surveys may be the preferred method for estimating wildlife abundances. When encounter rates are low, distance sampling lacks the precision of the other methods but its cost advantage may make it appropriate for long-term or multi-species monitoring programmes. The REM is an efficient and precise method of estimating densities but has high initial equipment costs. We believe REM has the potential to work well for many species but it requires independent estimates of animal movements and group size.

The Seychelles black parrot Coracopsis (nigra) barklyi, endemic to the Seychelles islands, is the only surviving parrot on the archipelago. Although originally classified as a subspecies of the lesser vasa parrot Coracopsis nigra evidence now indicates that the Seychelles population may be a distinct species, in which case its conservation status also requires reassessment. Here, we address the status of the C. (n.) barklyi population on the islands of its current and likely historical range, Praslin and Curieuse, assess the effect of habitat type on relative abundance, and identify the most appropriate point count duration for monitoring the population. We conducted point count distance sampling at 268 locations using habitat type as a covariate in the modelling of the detection function. Density on Praslin was estimated to be 0.14–0.24 individuals per ha, resulting in an estimate of a total of 520–900 individuals (95% confidence interval). The highest densities occurred in endemic palm and mixed forests. Habitats with a high proportion of palms were more likely to support parrots than habitats without palms. As no parrots were detected on Curieuse the number estimated on Praslin is the global wild population. The small size of this population necessitates its categorization as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Our main recommendation for the conservation of C. (n.) barklyi, in addition to continued monitoring, is the preservation and expansion of the parrot's endemic palm forest habitat.

We conducted a survey questionnaire to assess and compare public perceptions and knowledge of jaguars Panthera onca and pumas Puma concolor among two stakeholder groups likely to come into conflict with these large carnivores: cattle ranchers living near protected areas and inhabitants of two villages located within the multiple-use forest of the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. We tested whether stakeholder group (i.e. rancher or villager) or previous experience with livestock attacks by carnivores predicted a negative perception of jaguars and pumas. The odds of people fearing an attack on humans by these felids and of recognizing the ecological importance of these species was best explained by stakeholder group. Villagers exhibited a more negative perception towards these felids than did cattle ranchers. Our results highlight the importance of tailoring conservation programmes in high risk areas to the needs of specific stakeholder groups. Further research is needed to understand which factors (i.e. ecological settings, socio-economic differences) best explain these differences and whether these differences in perception vary within groups. Programmes that work with local people to assess the ecological importance of large predators and the true risks of carnivore attacks on livestock and humans along with low-cost conflict mitigation measures should be implemented to increase the level of tolerance towards these carnivores.

Tiger Panthera tigris populations are under threat from poaching and depletion of their prey populations. The National Tiger Action Plan for Malaysia contains several actions addressing the threat of legal and illegal hunting of tiger prey species. One action in this plan required an investigation of whether urgent policy changes were needed to improve the protection of the prey of tigers, based on existing data. As the lack of reliable baseline data prevented us from determining population trends accurately, we compiled camera-trapping data from 23 studies conducted between 1997 and 2008 on four principal tiger prey species (sambar Rusa unicolor, barking deer Muntiacus muntjac, wild boar Sus scrofa and bearded pig S. barbatus) and two potential prey species (gaur Bos gaurus and Malayan tapir Tapirus indicus) and compared their distributions and relative abundances. From 10,145 wildlife photographs spanning 40,303 trap-nights, sambar, bearded pig and gaur appeared to be most threatened given their restricted distribution and low relative abundance. Among these, the gaur has full legal protection and has received more conservation attention than the other two species. Following our assessment and advocacy a 6-year moratorium on hunting both sambar and barking deer was imposed by the Malaysian government and the highest protection status possible was afforded the bearded pig. This case study illustrates how best available data (BAD), in this case from camera-trapping studies, can be harnessed to effect precautionary policy changes to curb the impacts of hunting on threatened predator and prey populations that could crash well before resources would otherwise be available for rigorous scientific assessments.

Although human-related disturbance is usually detrimental for biodiversity, in some instances it can simulate natural processes and benefit certain species. Changes in the disturbance regime, both natural and human-driven, can affect species that rely on it. The Apennine yellow-bellied toad Bombina variegata pachypus, an amphibian endemic to peninsular Italy, has declined throughout its range in the last 3 decades. We sought to identify the drivers of the decline in the region of Liguria, at the north-western limit of its distribution. In 2009 and 2010 we surveyed sites where the species occurred until 2005 and related the persistence of breeding activity to the characteristics of sites. Populations had disappeared from 50% of the sites between 2005 and 2009. Current breeding sites have less aquatic and bank vegetation, fewer predators and better insolation. Frequent disturbance events (desiccation and floods) were related to reduced vegetation, which in turn may decrease predator densities and increase insolation. In this region disturbance is provided by natural factors or, in the case of artificial water bodies, by regular maintenance carried out by landowners. The widespread land abandonment in Liguria can disrupt disturbance regimes, interrupting the removal of vegetation, and thus rapidly reduce the suitability of artificial sites. This was confirmed in our study, with most abandoned breeding sites occurring in formerly cultivated areas. Possible short-term conservation actions include creating new ponds, maintaining artificial water bodies and clearing vegetation. However, long-term conservation may be more problematic as the land abandonment process is unlikely to be reversed.

Since the early 2000s increasing attention has been paid to the relationship between biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction and a debate has ensued over various aspects of this relationship. One element of this debate has been concerned with an apparent lack of attention to biodiversity conservation on the international development agenda following the prioritization of poverty reduction. This paper explores whether this lack of attention is real or perceived by reviewing changes in biodiversity policy within the UK Department for International Development (DFID). It is clear that attention to biodiversity within DFID policy has changed significantly over time. There was strong support for wildlife conservation until the 1990s, including technical assistance, funding for integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), and community-based conservation. By the 2000s, however, the main focus had switched from funding wildlife conservation to mainstreaming biodiversity concerns into development policy. The degree to which the explicit focus on poverty reduction that emerged in the late 1990s drove this change is debatable. Changes in aid architecture, UK politics and clearer differentiations between the roles of DFID and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in addressing biodiversity concerns have also shaped DFID's policy. Meanwhile, the political traction afforded to climate change demonstrates that it is possible for environmental issues to sit alongside poverty reduction in international development policy. However, communicating the societal implications of biodiversity loss has proved to be more challenging than for climate change. Better understanding of the mechanisms by which development assistance is disbursed would help the conservation community identify key opportunities for engagement.

Crop-raiding by primates and bushpigs Potamochoerus porcus is a major cause of human–wildlife conflict around Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. In 2006–2007 a project was initiated, with farmer participation, to investigate the efficacy of on-farm techniques to reduce crop-raiding, including guarding and early-warning techniques, fences, plant barriers, trenches, lights and nets. Here, farmers' perceptions of the effectiveness and sustainability of these deterrents were evaluated using semi-structured interviews and direct observations. Factors important to farmers in effective, sustainable and locally appropriate crop-raiding mitigation are that deterrents be cost-effective, easily manipulated, improve guarding efficiency and require minimal labour inputs. Farmers reported paid guards, guard dogs, wire fences, lights and bells/alarms as most effective. This differs from observations that farmers independently maintained certain deterrents that they presumably considered valuable, namely wire fences, guard dogs, bells/alarms, trenches, lights and nets. This evaluation demonstrates the importance of farmers' participation and perceptions in the viability and uptake of crop-raiding deterrents, and the importance of assessing conflict mitigation trials over the long term.

Illegal extraction from protected areas is often shaped by the surrounding socio-economic landscape. We coupled village-scale socio-economic parameters collected using household surveys with measured levels of illegal resource extraction proximate to study villages to investigate the socio-economic drivers of illegal extraction from Kibale National Park, Uganda. The level of illegal tree harvesting and the number of illegal entry trails into the Park were driven by subsistence demand from villages adjacent to the Park and by for-profit extraction to supply local urban markets, whereas grazing in the Park was linked to high livestock ownership. Capital asset wealth, excluding livestock, was found to mitigate illegal resource extraction from the Park. We also found high human population density to coincide spatially with park-based tourism, research and carbon sequestration employment opportunities. Conservation strategies should be integrated with national policy to meet the needs of local communities and to manage urban demand to reduce illegal extraction from protected areas.

The Endangered Mangshan pit viper Protobothrops mangshanensis is endemic to the Nanling Mountain Range of China. It has been targeted for exploitation to satisfy the international pet trade and zoological collections since it was described. Long-term intensive exploitation and habitat destruction have resulted in drastic reductions in wild populations, pushing this rare species towards extinction. Since 1990 only limited investigations have been conducted and the most optimistic estimation of the population size was 300–500 individuals, in 2000. Since then, however, there have been no updates on the population status of this snake in the wild. To provide baseline data for effective conservation of this species we conducted a study of its status and distribution, during 2007–2010. Only eight individuals were found during fieldwork and we documented the illegal harvesting of >30. The total population of the species was estimated to be 462, occupying c. 105 km2 in the Nanling Mountain Range. The black market price of a Mangshan pit viper is currently >USD 1,000 kg−1 and illegal trade has led to over-harvesting, which is the greatest threat to the species. Our study indicates that protected areas cannot effectively protect this pit viper if the trade in this species cannot be controlled. Based on the results of our study we present five recommendations for conservation of the species.

The formerly widespread but now Vulnerable dorcas gazelle Gazella dorcas has declined markedly during the last 2 decades. The semi-captive population in M'Sabih Talaa Reserve, west-central Morocco, is genetically distinct and may be the last remnant of the Moroccan dorcas gazelle G. dorcas massaesyla. The last estimate of the size of this population was c. 200, in 1996. To assess the current population we used line-transect distance sampling to survey this population over five seasons from April 2008 to August 2009. The estimated population declined from 113 to 87 individuals from April to November 2008, increased to 111 in February 2009 (primarily because of recruitment), declined to 99 from February to April 2009, and to 95 by August 2009. These results indicate a decline of nearly 50% in < 15 years. The main conservation actions required for this subspecies are the suppression of poaching and feral dogs, the creation of other reserves to receive dorcas gazelles from M'Sabih Talaa (to avoid loss of the single population from a catastrophic event), and the implementation of a genetic management programme.

Understanding spatial ecology is essential for the development of effective and appropriate conservation strategies, especially for the Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, which occurs at a low density across vast arid areas of Iran. Yet, despite its Critically Endangered status, information on the ranging and movement of this species was formerly lacking. Here we present data for exceptionally long movements of a few individuals across multiple reserves in central Iran, obtained using camera traps during 2009–2013. We identified an adult female who moved c. 150 km multiple times between two reserves in 3 years, covering an estimated 3,629 km2. After becoming independent her three sons formed a coalition and ranged across multiple reserves, covering an estimated 4,862 km2 in their first 3 years. An adult male was also found patrolling three reserves, moving up to 40 km across an estimated 807 km2. These data demonstrate that cheetahs in Iran cover vast ranges, and indicate a requirement for large, connected areas for the long-term conservation of this metapopulation.