Vicuña Vicugna vicugna are an emblematic species of one of the major arid ecosystems of the neotropics: the puna or altiplano. Excessive commercial hunting of vicuña for their valuable fleece in the past caused a severe decline in the population, with the vicuña almost becoming extinct by the mid 20th century. Effective protection resulted in the recovery of some populations and, recently, limited vicuña exploitation has been allowed. Research is urgently required to underpin the design of the management systems used for this exploitation. We present the results of a 2-year study on habitat utilization of vicuña in Laguna de Pozuelos UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Argentina. Vicuña did not use the study area homogeneously but preferred vegetation communities dominated by grasses (known locally as pajonal and esporal) and with high overall plant cover. Vicuña were less selective in 2003, when overall habitat quality decreased, than in 2002. This change is predicted by habitat selection theory. We also found that members of family groups spend more time foraging than members of non-reproductive groups. Solitary vicuña spend more time standing up than members of groups, consistent with the observation that herding behaviour is related to protection against predators. Heterogeneous use and habitat selectivity suggest that exploitation of vicuña needs to take spatial behaviour into account in the establishment of the optimal location of capturing sites.

Knowledge of the conservation status of Bornean bats is biased towards areas considered to support high diversity in the northern Malaysian states. Few surveys have been undertaken in Indonesian Borneo, despite it representing over two thirds of the island's land area. We present the first description of a bat assemblage in Borneo's nutrient poor, or oligotrophic, forests (heath and peat swamp), habitats that have been considered depauperate in wildlife. We surveyed two protected areas in Central Kalimantan using harp traps supplemented by mist nets. We recorded 27 species, 18 of which were captured exclusively by harp traps. The bat assemblage of both sites was dominated by vespertilionids of the subfamily Kerivoulinae. The most abundant species, Kerivoula intermedia, accounted for 45% of standardized captures in Tanjung Puting National Park. At this site 15 species were represented by <10 captures each. Hipposideros ridleyi, Kerivoula lenis, Murina aenea and Murina rozendaali, four rare and threatened species, were recorded for the first time in Indonesia, and Phoniscus atrox, Murina cyclotis and Hipposideros doriae were recorded for the first time in Kalimantan. Estimation of species richness indicated that this inventory was almost complete for understorey, narrow-space, insectivores susceptible to capture in harp traps. It is likely that further surveys targeting open spaces, rivers, forest edges and the canopy will record species of other foraging guilds. The inventory exceeds those from other sites in Kalimantan because previous surveys have not used harp traps. However, it is a depauperate subset of assemblages studied in north Borneo, most likely because these sites are better known and are nearer to caves. Despite this relatively low diversity, our study shows that protected areas in oligotrophic forests provide valuable habitat for some of this island's rarest bat species, and are likely to become more important for bat conservation in light of widespread forest disturbance in Borneo.

Black rhino Diceros bicornis michaeli in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania were reduced by poaching from c. 110 animals in the mid 1960s to c. 20 by the mid 1970s. Despite little subsequent poaching the rhino population has not increased. This paper builds on a stakeholder workshop held in September 2003 to consider the problems facing these rhino and make recommendations for management. Research and monitoring is required as conservation decisions are, through necessity, being taken based on expert opinion. Genetic constraints may arise in the future given the small population size. We hypothesize, however, that the rhino population is currently limited by ecological factors including: neonatal predation by hyaena Crocuta crocuta, loss of calving refuges because of a reduction in Acacia xanthophloea, competition for browse with elephant Loxodonta africana and buffalo Syncerus caffer, tick-borne disease, and disturbance from tourism. These factors are exacerbated by an institutional philosophy of non-intervention. We suggest using adaptive inference to assess this hypothesis and to provide managers with appropriate information for rhino conservation.

Chytridiomycosis is a fatal disease associated with amphibian population declines and extinctions worldwide. In a protected area in central Spain, the Peñalara Natural Park, the disease almost extirpated the population of Alytes obstetricans over only a few years, but did not apparently affect other amphibians. We present new observations documenting the occurrence of the disease in other species. In 2001–2003 we collected over 400 larvae or recently metamorphosed individuals of Salamandra salamandra and also several dead individuals of Bufo bufo. The analysis of the skin of post-metamorphic specimens revealed the presence of chytrid sporangia and discharge tubes in both species. According to measures of larval abundances in 1999 and 2003 the population of S. salamandra has suffered a marked decline but no significant trend was observed for B. bufo. We discuss the possible role of chytridiomycosis in the decline of S. salamandra and comment on the differential susceptibility exhibited by various species in the amphibian community at Peñalara.

We censused wild buffalo Bubalus arnee in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, in March 2004 using methods employed in earlier surveys, and estimated a population of 159 animals. Since the last census in 2000 the management situation has deteriorated. Guard posts have been evacuated due to the Maoist insurgency. The entire Army Battalion usually posted in the Reserve was at Headquarters at the time of this study and therefore there were no patrols over most of the Reserve, and much human encroachment. Mortality from flooding and road deaths, and possibly poaching for meat, were evident, and males suffered more mortality overall than females. Despite these threats the population had increased since 2000, albeit at a lower rate than previously. Active management, including interventions within the Reserve and a translocation of some individuals to Chitwan National Park, are recommended.

The Virginia northern flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus is a Vulnerable sciurid that has experienced a 90% reduction of suitable high elevation boreal montane forest habitat over the last century in the central Appalachians of West Virginia and Virginia, USA. Using radiotelemetry and GIS analyses we examined the species' home range size and habitat use in the Monongahela National Forest, Kumbrabow State Forest and the MeadWestvaco Ecosystem Research Forest in West Virginia during the summers of 2000–2003. The mean home range sizes of male and female squirrels were 54.2 and 15.3 ha, respectively, based on the adaptive kernel method. Euclidean distance analysis indicated the squirrels used spruce, mixed spruce-northern hardwood, and open habitats more than was available across the landscape. Selection of spruce and mixed spruce-northern hardwood habitats indicates that forest management activities designed to restore and increase these types in the central Appalachian landscape are required to conserve and increase this Vulnerable species.

The bumble-bee bat Craseonycteris thonglongyai of the monospecific family Craseonycteridae is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. First discovered in 1973, it was until recently only known from a small population of approximately 2,300 individuals restricted to the catchment area of the River Kwai, Thailand. However, in 2001 a single craseonycterid was discovered in Mon State, Myanmar, extending its geographical range by approximately 250 km. In October and November 2002 a survey was undertaken to examine the status of C. thonglongyai in Myanmar and assess its geographical distribution and population size. C. thonglongyai calls were recorded from bats emerging from nine of 19 caves surveyed; the population size was estimated to be 1,500. The phylogenetic relationships between the Thai and Myanmar populations were investigated using molecular, morphological and acoustic data. Morphologically, the two populations are indistinguishable. However, there is an 8–10 kHz echolocation call divergence between the populations. Cytochrome b data suggest that the two populations are similar and that the Myanmar population may be monophyletic. Annual surveys of the known bat roosts and in situ education programmes for local people are recommended together with the establishment of an integrated, transboundary Myanmar/Thai conservation strategy.

The Sierra Madre sparrow Xenospiza baileyi, categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is endemic to Mexico. The subalpine bunch grasslands of the Transverse Volcanic Belt in the south of the Valley of Mexico are the last remaining habitat of this species. We conducted a detailed survey for the Sierra Madre sparrow using the point count method, and then described the species' habitat using a phytosociological approach. The two sets of information were pooled into a single analytical framework to identify priority habitats for the species. Eight vegetation communities were distinguished. The Festuca lugens-Muhlenbergia quadridentata and Stipa ichu bunch grassland communities had the highest densities of the Sierra Madre sparrow. Intensive burning and grazing activities and agricultural encroachment have restricted sparrow occupancy. Landscape analysis helped to delineate core grassland areas for the species and grassland strips and islands that could potentially act as habitat corridors. From the information generated in this study, which was shared with the local communities, we are establishing a participatory socio-ecological investigation for conservation of the Sierra Madre sparrow's habitat.

We evaluate the effectiveness of the MERCOSUR's network of protected areas in representing South America's ecoregions. The region contains 1,219 non-overlapping protected areas covering nearly 2,000,000 km2. Fifty percent of the reserves are <100 km2 and 75% <1,000 km2. Less than a half of the 75 ecoregions in the MERCOSUR have at least 10% of their area within protected areas, and only 13 when just reserves in IUCN categories I–IV are considered. In general, forests are better represented than other biomes. At the national level the network of protected areas in Uruguay is the least developed in the region, with those of Bolivia and Chile the most developed. For 10% of each ecoregion to be protected at least another 500,000 km2 would have to be incorporated into the network. Such expansion would be more efficient if conservation priorities are identified using a regional approach. This is of particular relevance for the cost-efficient protection of the 20 ecoregions that are shared by two or more countries. While only c. 20% of the ecoregions found in Brazil are shared with other countries, >75% of the ecoregions in Bolivia, c. 70% in Argentina, >60% in Chile, and all the ecoregions in Paraguay and Uruguay are shared with other countries. Overall, although it currently covers 14% of the region, the network of protected areas of the MERCOSUR still performs poorly in protecting its ecoregions.

Extant representatives of the ancient crustacean family Anaspididae are restricted to the island State of Tasmania, Australia. Allanaspides hickmani and Allanaspides helonomus were first described in the early 1970s from surface pools in buttongrass moorland in two adjacent watersheds in south-west Tasmania. Both of these catchments have since been inundated for hydroelectric power generation (Lake Gordon and Serpentine Impoundments). Surveys indicate that both species persist in a small number of highly fragmented populations on the margins of the two impoundments. A. hickmani and A. helonomus have extant Areas of Occupancy of c. 21 and 54 km2, respectively. We estimate that inundation resulted in the loss of 85–94% of the original range of A. hickmani and c. 78% of the original range of A. helonomus. Under IUCN Red List guidelines and National threatened species legislation A. hickmani but not A. helonomus may qualify for listing as Vulnerable (Area of Occupancy <20 km2). At the present time only A. hickmani is listed as Rare under Tasmanian (State) threatened species legislation but A. helonomus merits the same listing under State legislation. Global warming appears to pose the most significant potential threat to Allanaspides species.

China has one of the world's most diverse freshwater turtle faunas but is also a major consumer of freshwater turtles. In the 1980s over-collecting, illegal trade and habitat destruction increased dramatically, pushing almost all Chinese turtles towards extinction. Despite the critical status of Chinese turtles little has been done to quantify and evaluate the impact of illegal activities on wild populations. We used a combination of market surveys and questionnaires to examine the illegal trade and conservation status of native freshwater turtles in Nanmao, Hainan Province, from February to August 2003. We found a total of 245 collected freshwater turtles comprising eight species. These data indicate that Nanmao has a rich freshwater turtle fauna that is being affected heavily by illegal poaching. No effective measures have been taken to protect the few remaining wild turtle populations. The main factors that lead to illegal trade include the cultural belief that turtles are a viable food/medicine product, lack of conservation awareness, poaching of turtles as a supplement to income, and poor law enforcement. Possible conservation strategies are discussed.

In this paper, we analyse long-term whale shark Rhincodon typus sightings collected by ecotourist operators and evaluate the validity of conclusions drawn from the data for scientific and conservation purposes. To date information about the basic ecology and movements of whale sharks is sparse, and only recently has the species received global conservation attention. A dive company in Phuket, Thailand, documented whale shark sightings in the Andaman Sea for 10 years along 300 km of coastline. Whale shark sightings, corrected for effort, dropped by 96% between 1998 and 2001. Combining the seasons from 1992 to 1998, the number of whale shark sightings increased significantly from October to May. The sizes of sharks observed suggest that the majority were juveniles. We discuss the limitations of using ecotourist operators as non-specialist volunteers for data collection but conclude that their use can be beneficial for long-term, broad geographic studies such as this.

In this paper we examine the number of known populations of 86 bromeliad species recorded in the Atlantic forest of north-east Brazil, to test the following predictions: (1) the current number of populations of most bromeliad species inhabiting the Atlantic forest of north-east Brazil is critically low, (2) the number of extant populations of a particular species is associated with the ecological attributes of the species, and (3) habitat loss determines, at least in part, the current distribution and number of populations of each species. At present there are at least 535 bromeliad populations in this forest but 61.6% of species have <6 populations and 24.4% have only one known population. The mean number of populations per species was significantly lower among species endemic to this part of the Atlantic forest, species recorded in only one vegetation type, forest and inselberg species, and obligatory epiphytic and terrestrial species. We were unable to relocate 41 populations recorded between 1920 and 1996, and populations of 20 species have become locally extinct. For these bromeliads geographic range, habitat specificity and life form appear to determine which species are more vulnerable to extinction. The species that have <6 extant populations include 27 species that are endemic to this forest. These species need to be evaluated for inclusion on both the IUCN and Brazilian Red Lists. Some of these species will only survive if the fragments containing the last populations are declared as protected areas.

New records in Tanzania of the Vulnerable Jackson's mongoose Bdeogale jacksoni expand its distribution by over 900 km to the south. During two independent camera-trap surveys over 3 years B. jacksoni, one of Africa's most cryptic small carnivores and previously thought to be endemic to Kenya, was recorded in forests of the Udzungwa Mountains. All records were highly localized within Matundu forest, at a maximum of 2.65 km apart. Most of the records (73%) were between 19.00 and 00.00, confirming that the species is primarily nocturnal. Conservation recommendations include further ecological research, genetic analyses, surveys in other Eastern Arc and ground-water dependent forests, and greater protection for Matundu.

Human-wildlife conflict has negative implications for wildlife conservation, and current crop protection methods are not sufficient to address the problem. Alternative livelihood strategies may provide the ultimate solution to this conflict but they are not always feasible in the short-term. We test the viability of using chilli Capsicum spp. as an unpalatable cash crop to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Our trials indicate that chilli is less vulnerable to wildlife than other crops and is also economically viable.

Bushmeat is a major food and economic resource in sub-Saharan Africa, and with increasing urbanization bushmeat consumption has spread from villages to cities. To facilitate long-term monitoring of the bushmeat market in Yaoundé, Cameroon, we carried out a baseline survey of the transportation routes of bushmeat into the city and of urban bushmeat sales. We inventoried all bushmeat sales points, and located 15 markets and 145 restaurants and cafeterias selling an estimated total of 1,052 bushmeat dishes per day. This trade provides an occupation for 249 people, of whom 84.3% are women. Trains from Ngaoundere in the north and minibuses from the east supply more than 70% of the sales points in the Elig-Edzoa market, located next to the railway, and the Nkoldongo bus station. From these two places bushmeat is redistributed to other commercial sites within the city. The routes into Yaoundé transport bushmeat from a vast area of the country and in particular from the savannah and central provinces, which are rich in wildlife and contain National Parks and safari hunting areas. However, overall, bushmeat consumption at commercial outlets in the city is low relative to the number of inhabitants.

In February 2005 clear evidence was found of extensive hunting by local people of microchiropteran bats in south-western Madagascar. Hipposideros commersoni (Family Hipposideridae) accumulates heavy fat deposits during this period, weighing on average about 50 g, and is the targeted species. The capture of other smaller species of microchiropterans appears to be incidental. The exploitation of bats for bushmeat in this region takes place during a period of food shortage, and because the level of collection surpasses the breeding potential of these animals it may over time result in extirpation of local populations.