Our earlier monitoring program on Lewis Glacier, Mount Kenya, indicated a slow-down of the ice flow to January 1982, while based on the numerical modeling of the ice dynamics a further drastic decrease of the ice flow was predicted from the 1978 to the 1985 datum. This paper presents velocity measurements over the years 1982–83, 1984, and 1985. Changes of ice-flow conditions from 1978 to the mid 1980s are characterized by a velocity decrease by nearly half; a decrease of the maximum mass flux by more than half; a flattening and up-glacier shift of the velocity and mass-flux maxima; an up-glacier displacement of the transition between prevailingly longitudinal crevasses in the lower glacier and transverse crevasses in the upper glacier; and a terminus retreat by about 50 m. In consequence of the very weak ice flow remaining in Lewis Glacier, thinning and terminus retreat of the glacier are now primarily controlled by the in-situ net balance.

The ice-thickness profiling performance of a helicopter-mounted short-pulse radar operating at approximate center frequencies of 600 and 900 MHz was assessed. The antenna packages were mounted 1.2 m off the skid of a small helicopter whose speed and altitude were varied from about 1.8 to 9 m/s and 3 to 12 m. Clutter from the helicopter offered minimal interference with the ice data. Data were acquired in Alaska over lakes (as a proving exercise) and two rivers, whose conditions varied from open water to over 1.5 m of solid ice with numerous frazil-ice formations. The most readily interpretable data were acquired when the ice or snow surface was smooth. Detailed surface investigations on the Tanana River revealed good correlations of echo delay with solid ice depth, but an insensitivity to frazil-ice depth due to its high water content. On the Yukon River, coinciding temporally coherent surface and bottom reflections were associated with solid ice and smooth surfaces. All cases of incoherent surface returns (scatter) occurred over ice rubble. Rough-surface scattering was always followed by the appearance of bottom scattering but, in many cases, including a hanging-wall formation of solid frazil ice, bottom scattering occurred beneath coherent, smooth-surface reflections. Areas of incoherent bottom scattering investigated by drilling revealed highly variable ice conditions, including frazil ice. The minimum ice thickness that could be resolved from the raw data was about 0.2 m with the 600 MHz antenna and less than 0.15 m with the 900 MHz antenna.

From 1974 to 1981, a total of 32 bore holes was drilled on White Glacier and vertical ice-temperature profiles measured. The data obtained allowed the construction of three longitudinal and four transverse profiles of the two-dimensional temperature distributions. Thus, an extensive layer of temperate or near-temperate ice was discovered close to the bedrock in the lowest part of the glacier tongue. It was also found that the temperature distribution cannot be in a steady state, since there is a temperature minimum 100–150 m below the glacier surface in the accumulation area. A simple numerical model calculation shows that this minimum can be mostly explained by the general climatic warming since 1880. The 10 m temperatures show diffuse relations to climatic conditions and balance zones. A simple scheme for extrapolating “surface temperatures” is discussed.

The areal distribution of glacier annual mass balance b(z) is an important characteristic of the existence of glacierization and its evolution. At present the measured value of annual mass balance at different elevations is only available for a limited number of mountain glaciers of the globe, because of the great amount of labour required for such measurements.

The analysis of long-term mass-balance measurements made at Abramova glacier, Limmerngletscher, White Glacier, Hintereisferner, and Peyto Glacier has revealed that for each year the spatial distribution of annual mass balance is well described by quadratic equations. The main variable in these equations is altitude (z). The various parameters of these formulae are estimated by the author for mean weighted height of the ablation and accumulation areas, and for the glaciers as a whole. It is found that the parameters of annual mass balance for each glacier can be calculated from formulae which include combinations of the following variables: annual balance at one of the three weighted altitudes, maximum annual snow-line elevation, annual and seasonal amounts of precipitation, and air temperatures at nearby meteorological stations.

Therefore, in order to calculate the distribution of annual mass balance as a function of absolute altitude, it is sufficient to obtain a value for mass balance measured only at a single point on a glacier, and common meteorological observational data. A comparison of actual and calculated values of mass balance has shown good agreement between them.

Considering the successful use of aerial remote-sensing for the measurement of snow depth in mountains by means of special stakes, it is satisfactory to accept this method for the assessment of annual mass balance at the mean weighted altitude of the ablation zone. It is possible to use aerial photo-surveys or stereophotogrammetry to resolve this problem. Then annual mass balance for the whole area of a glacier is calculated by using data from one point together with data from a nearby meteorological station.

A spectacular surge occurred on Peters Glacier, Alaska, in 1986 and 1987. Several observations on the glacier were made during the course of its surge. These observations are compared with those on other surging glaciers and then interpreted in terms of the ideas on surge mechanisms and dynamics as originally postulated by Post (unpublished) and further developed during the surge of Variegated Glacier by Kamb and others (1985) and Raymond and Harrison (1986, in press). It is shown that the concepts of rapid basal motion due to high water pressure at the glacier bed and the initiation of a surge during the winter due to a pressurization of the limited supply of basal water are well supported by these observations on the surge of Peters Glacier. An extremely high suspended sediment load rich in very fine material was observed, which also supports ideas on basal processes expected during this type of surge.

One interesting (and puzzling) feature of this surge cycle is that the termination of the surge occurred in late winter 1987, when surface melt water was at a minimum. This is in direct contrast to the termination of the surge on Variegated Glacier, which occurred during the period of peak ablation.

In a tunnel at the base of sub-polar Urumqi Glacier No. 1, China, three new mechanisms of glacier flow at sub-freezing temperatures have been observed. Taken individually or in combination, these modes of flow can account for nearly all (60–80%) of the overall glacier motion and, yet, they act only within the lowermost 1–2% of the effective glacier thickness. These mechanisms are: (1) enhanced deformation of the frozen and ice-laden subglacial drift; (2) motion across discrete shear planes or shear bands within the frozen drift or at the ice-drift interface; and (3) basal sliding at an ice-rock interface at a temperature of nearly −5° C. The ice-laden drift has an effective viscosity of more than one hundred times less than that measured in the overlying ice, thus allowing very rapid shear deformation. The observed rate or basal sliding at the ice-rock interface agrees favorably with that predicted by the recent work of Shreve (1984) if proper account is taken of the measured surface roughness and reduced ice viscosity.

Resistive force exerted by the Crary Ice Rise on its ice-shelf/ice-stream environment and back-pressure force transmitted across the grounding lines of Ice Streams A and B are calculated from airborne radio echo-sounding data and measurements of surface strain-rates. Resistance generated by the ice rise ranges in magnitude between 45 and 51% of the back-pressure force on the ice streams (depending on the flow law). The mechanical-energy budget of the ice rise is computed by considering work done against frictional forces at the perimeter of the ice rise and gravitational potential energy fluxes associated with changing mass distribution in the ice/ocean system. Energy dissipated by flow surrounding the ice rise is balanced by potential energy released within Ice Streams A and B, and accounts for between 15 and 49% of the work done by the ice streams against ice-shelf back pressure at their grounding lines. Mass balance of the ice rise, and the discharge of Ice Streams A and B, are calculated from surface-velocity and snow-accumulation measurements. The ice rise and its immediate environment gain mass by advection and snowfall at a rate equivalent to an area-averaged thickening rate of 0.44 ± 0.06 m/year. This mass gain may be balanced by regional basal melting (which we do not measure), or could contribute to ice-rise expansion through regional thickening and ice-shelf grounding. Approximately 1/4 to 1/2 of the excess volume discharged by Ice Streams A and B above snow accumulation in their catchment areas is deposited in the vicinity of the ice rise (or melted from the bottom of the ice shelf). This suggests that the ice rise may have formed as a consequence of recent ice-stream acceleration, and that its continued growth may eventually reverse this trend of ice-stream discharge.

A tunnel was excavated in Urumqi Glacier No. 1, at the Tianshan Glaciological Station. Ice temperature, ice displacement, deformation, and basal sliding, etc. were observed at regular intervals. It is shown that the temperature near the glacier bed is close to the melting point and that the largest proportion of the overall glacier motion is within the lowermost ice layers. The glacier ice is in a state of compression. The maximum shear strain increases towards the entrance of the tunnel, corresponding to the change in slope of the ice surface, and also towards the bedrock.

Small perturbations in Antarctic environ-mental conditions can culminate in the demise of the Antarctic ice sheet’s western sector. This may have happened during the last interglacial period, and could recur within the next millennium due to atmospheric warming from trace gas and CO2 increases. In this study, we investigate the importance of sea-level, accumulation rate, and ice influx from the East Antarctic ice sheet in the re-establishment of the West Antarctic ice sheet from a thin cover using a time-dependent numerical ice-shelf model. Our results show that a precursor to the West Antarctic ice sheet can form within 3000 years. Sea-level lowering caused by ice-sheet development in the Northern Hemisphere has the greatest environmental influence. Under favorable conditions, ice grounding occurs over all parts of the West Antarctic ice sheet except up-stream of Thwaites Glacier and in the Ross Sea region.

The effects of past glaciation in what is now Australian territory were first recognized on Macquarie Island, probably by David Ramsay, in 1821. The recognition by Darwin in 1836, and reporting by Milligan in 1848 of ice-transported pebbles and boulders in late Palaeozoic marine rocks in Tasmania, showed on the one hand participation in and on the other familiarity with the controversy in Great Britain at that time on the origin of erratics and drift currents. Reports by Clarke (1852), Daintree in 1859, Selwyn (1860), and Gould (1860) of the effects of land ice on Mount Koscuisko (New South Wales), Bacchus Marsh (Victoria), Inman Valley (South Australia), and the Central Highlands (Tasmania), respectively, reflect the increasing recognition in Great Britain of the erosional and depositional effects of glaciers. Daintree, Selwyn, and Gould were all closely connected with A.C. Ramsay, the main British protagonist of the glacial theory at the time, whereas David Ramsay and Milligan were probably influenced by Robert Jameson of Edinburgh.

The formulation and application of a onedimensional sea-ice thermodynamic model is presented in this paper. The model’s sensitivity to changes in oceanic and atmospheric parameters is analyzed and compared with previous studies. The model is next applied to three locations in the Arctic: Cambridge Bay, Frobisher Bay, and Alert Inlet to study the model’s ability to simulate the annual cycle of first-year ice. The model’s results are compared with available climatological data and discussed in terms of the main thermodynamic processes, the combined effects of oceanic tides, and of sea-ice deterioration by melting on the break-up of sea ice.

It is shown that the model is effective in simulating the climatology of the first-year ice thickness at the three Arctic locations. The study also suggests that improved model performance can be expected from additional research and application of flexural forcing of the ice by waves and tides, and of deterioration of ice strength during the melting process.

Basic glaciological measurements from the James Ross Island ice cap are presented, including mean annual accumulation and firn temperature. In addition to the well-known radioactivity levels of January 1955 and 1965 in Antarctic snow, two new radioactivity levels corresponding to January 1969 and January 1974 are used in determining the accumulation values. The measurements reveal certain climatic features of this ice cap.

Thin ice deposits, grown on a prismatic ice substrate and the first layers of large deposits grown about a cylindrical ice collector, are studied. Experiments were performed at 30 m s–1 wind speed and Ta near –20° C. Progressive structural changes in thin accretions with time of water-injection were observed, when the substrate temperature was Ts > –5°C. After 60s injection, which determined a deposit ~1 mm thick, the preferred orientation was established and the mean grain area was ~0.01 mm2. Such structural changes did not appear along the initial layers of thick deposits. These differed mainly from the subsequent zone because of the larger value of the preferred angle between the c-axis and the growth direction. These effects are discussed by considering the nucleation and orientation selection processes which occurred during droplet freezing and the annealing effects that occurred below the growth front. The different c-axis orientations in the initial and main zones are related to the different Ts values during their formation.

In order to avoid problems stemming from the accumulation of rock fragments at the bottom of the hole during conventional thermal drilling in ice, a new type of probe has been developed. In this system, the water is warmed electrically inside the probe itself and propelled by a micro-pump. In this way, the hot water sprayed towards the ice scatters the insulating layer of debris and drilling continues normally, as shown by tests on several glaciers over the past 4 years.

An investigation of the combined heat, ice, and water balances was carried out in the Marukh glacier basin (west Caucasus) in 1966–67 to 1976–77, according to the International Hydrological Decade programme. Averaged glacier mass balance for these 11 years appears to be −55 g cm−2 year−1 according to stake measurements, and −51 g cm−2 year−1 according to geodetic measurements. The variability of accumulation is estimated as Cv = 0.15 and of ablation as Cv = 0.11. Thus, the variation in accumulation governs the oscillations in glacier balance. The inner nourishment of the glacier was also taken into account. The glacier mass balance is closely related to the relation between the accumulation and ablation areas. The “transient” values of both figures during the whole period of ablation can be used for this relation. The forms of the accumulation and ablation fields are similar from year to year and from one 10 day period to another. The areas of the accumulation and ablation zones are very different from one year to another. On the contrary, the average specific balance for each zone changes very little. One can use these features for the construction of accumulation, ablation, and specific mass-balance maps from satellite imagery. Mean values for the mass-balance terms occur in the vicinity of the equilibrium line. They can be calculated by using the air temperatures. Deviations from the means in different areas of the glacier determine the typical fields of the mass-balance terms.

We discuss the suggestion that small underwater transmitters might be used to illuminate the interior of major englacial water channels with radio waves. Once launched, the radio waves would naturally tend to be guided along the channels until attenuated by absorption and by radiative loss. Receivers placed within the channels or at the glacier surface could be used to detect the signals. They would provide valuable information about the connectivity of the water system. The electrical conductivity of the water is of crucial importance. A surface stream on Storglaciären, in Sweden, was found, using a low-frequency technique, to have a conductivity of approximately 4 × 10−4 S m−1. Although this is several hundred times higher than the conductivity of the surrounding glacier ice, the contrast is not sufficient to permit us simply to use electrical conductivity measurements to establish the connectivity of englacial water channels. However, the water conductivity is sufficiently small that, under favourable circumstances, radio signals should be detectable after travelling as much as a few hundred metres along an englacial water channel. In a preliminary field experiment, we demonstrated semi quantitatively that radio waves do indeed propagate as expected, at least in surface streams. We conclude that under-water radio transmitters could be of real practical value in the study of the englacial water system, provided that sufficiently robust devices can be constructed. In a subglacial channel, however, we expect the radio range would be much smaller, the environment much harsher, and the technique of less practical value.

Mass-balance measurements have been renewed on two small ice caps on north-eastern Ellesmere Island. Original stake networks were established in 1972 and 1976. Since then, both ice caps have experienced significant mass losses averaging –70 to –140 kg m−2 a−1. They have also decreased in area. The equilibrium line in this area has averaged around 1150 m for the last decade or so. The ice caps are remnants of former climatic conditions and are out of equilibrium with contemporary climate.