The haunting image of Nietzsche as a pre-fascist ideologist does not fit the early impression of him in Japan and Germany. At the beginning of the 20th century, he stimulated young intellectuals to liberate themselves from the culture of the bourgeois. This was replaced by a Heideggerian interpretation of Nietzsche given in the Nazi-period, which influenced conservative circles both in Germany and Japan after World War II. There is now emerging a new interpretation of Nietzsche from the perspective of the cultural left. Considering the impressions of Nietzsche in the two cultures, the author comes to the conclusion that we must forget the old-fashioned dichotomy between East and West and speak instead of the ‘entangled modernity’.

In the first years of the fifth century AD a Greek gentleman in his early 30s embarked from the harbour of the great city of Alexandria on a sailing ship bound for his native Cyrene. It is a voyage of about 780 km, approximately the distance from Venice to the mouth of the Adriatic, or a little longer than from Hamburg to London. We are not sure about the season or the year; we only know that the voyage took place towards the end of a month; that is, a Greek lunar month, an ill-omened time for sailing, according to the belief of the Ancients. The traveller was Synesius, who belonged to a distinguished Cyrenian family, and was returning from a diplomatic mission in Constantinople, at the court of an Empire that would survive and bear the name ‘Roman’ for more than 1000 years. However, the empire of the ‘real’ Rome would find its real end in little more than 70 years.

The Vikings initially ventured into the Irish Sea as raiders and took, from the monasteries and other rich centres, wealth in the form of goods and slaves. In the course of the tenth century, however, they became permanently established and founded and developed the first towns in Ireland, often under sufferance from the local population. From these towns they controlled the trade routes along the western coasts of Europe through the Irish Sea — routes that brought luxury goods to both the North and the South. The increasing economic power of the Irish towns was one of the factors that led to the English conquest of Ireland in 1170.

Japanese occidentalism is characterized by the view that the culture of the Occident was seen as just as exotic to the Japanese as the Orient was to the Europeans, but it is accompanied by a feeling of cultural inferiority. This paper tries to illustrate the Japanese occidentalism in the different aesthetic perceptions of beauty, especially of female beauty, mainly in literary discourse from the late nineteenth century up to the immediate present. The notion of female beauty is formed through cultural discourse according to how the cultural inferiority is perceived. It is like the scenery without the substance and is interchangeable depending on the staging of the occidentalism.

It is suggested that the main impact of Sweden, Norway and Denmark upon Europe stems from their development into early welfare states with well-functioning political systems and social institutions. It is shown that their ways to this position were remarkably individual, and also that the seemingly identical Nordic states of this century have only to a rather limited extent been able to act in unity. The popular attitudes towards each other have been distinctly positive, but basically differing interests with regard to world politics and world economies have time and again made the politicians let raison d'état prevail.

The Nordic countries of Europe have many common traits. They are small countries in Northern Europe, they have been Lutheran since the Reformation, and they had, for centuries, a strong landholding peasantry but a weak aristocracy. They developed a comprehensive welfare state after the Second World War, and they are more sceptical about European integration than people from other countries in Western Europe. Despite attempts to create a Nordic union and the existence of a Nordic Council, their joint Nordic orientation has been subordinated to the national interests of the individual Nordic countries. They are clear-cut nation states with a nationalism that is not fierce, but represents a kind of official, controlled and uniform national spirit. With respect to parliamentary politics and social policy the main features of the countries have been called the Nordic Model. The model still exists, but rests on shakier ground than before.