Methylphenidate (MPH) abuse is well established especially among young people in USA. In France, MPH is indicated in treatment for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and narcolepsy in children and adults. Since its release onto the market, MPH abuse has been progressively increasing by individuals close to children treated with MPH and especially by patients to whom MPH is prescribed offlabel or obtained in black market.

We report the results of a national survey on abuse and off-label use of methylphenidate.

Assessment of data collected between 2000 and 2011 from the Nots, OPPIDUM and OPEMA databases (tools for monitoring psychoactive substance misuse).

MPH abuse and misuse were identified in 245 patients (168 in NotS, 68 in Oppidum and 9 in Opema). In NotS database, subjects were predominantly males (65%), aged between 12 and 74 years. When specified (122 cases), the sustained release form was used in 83% of cases and maximum daily MPH intake reached 2520 mg. MPH was injected (20%) or snorted (4%). Polydrug use was noted in 77% of cases. Regarding Oppidum and Opema databases, patients were exclusively adults and supported for drug addiction. In these cases, MPH was obtained by medical prescription (61%) and/or in black market (36%).

The medical practice of off-label prescription of MPH to treat ADHD or drug addiction in adults is the main problem in France. Another new aspect is that MPH is also diverted by teenagers, with or without ADH, for its stimulant and concentration-enhancing properties.

Cognitive impairment is often characterized as trait features of bipolar disorder.

To evaluate possible impairment of attention and executive function in bipolar patients.

Improving life quality of bipolar patients with cognitive deficits.

75bipolar (depressive: Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score>=17, manic/hippomanic: Young Mania Rating Scale score >=12, euthymic:6month of remission, HAMDscore<=8, YMRSscore<=6) patients (DSMIVTR). All the patients were free of psychotic symptoms at the moment of neurocognitive evaluation. Comparison group consisted of 25 healthy subjects without history of neurological and/or psychiatric disorder. Cognitive battery included standardized test of IQ, attention, working memory, visual memory, verbal memory and executive functioning. Demographic data, data about family history, information about psychiatric history, past and current treatment, history of psychosis, duration of illness, age of onset were collected. We analyzed statistically these data and evaluate impairment of attention and executive dysfunction.

Stable and lasting cognitive impairments involving attention and executive functioning (working memory, executive control, verbal fluency, mental manipulation and cognitive flexibility) are evident across all phases of illness. Longer durations of mood disturbance and higher number of hospitalization are negatively correlated with executive function.

Deterioration of executive functioning is related of hospitalization for mania. Attention and executive function are deteriorated by the recurrence of episodes. Sustained attention is impaired during mania, depression, euthymia. Selective attention deficits during acute episodes don’t normalize during euthymia.

Bipolar patients exhibit widespread neurocognitive dysfunctions during their lives, and attention and executive function are important impaired domains regardless illness phases.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) accounted for 62.4% of the total interpersonal violence burden in women. Various studies have identified the mental health consequences of intimate partner violence, with PTSD and depression as the most commonly identified disorders, but less have analysed the role of different type of violence.

The aim of this study was to assess the contributions of different forms of intimate partner violence (physical violence, sexual violence, psychological abuse, and stalking) on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression.

In all 160 women consecutively receiving a protection order in the South of Italy were assessed by an external interviewer. Hierarchical regressions tested the unique effects of different types of intimate partner violence on PTSD and depression.

In terms of PTSD symptoms, more than half (68.2%) of the sample reported PTSD and 77.4% reported severe depression symptoms. Two types of intimate partner violence (physical and sexual) were significantly associated with depressive symptoms, while only psychological violence was moderately correlated with PTSD symptoms. Physical abuse contributed to the prediction of depression and psychological abuse to PTSD.

A significant number of women with protection orders suffer from PTSD and depression. The results confirm a relationship between severity of intimate partner violence and mental health problems (PTSD and depression). Assessment of intimate partner violence should incorporate the multiple dimensions that have been identified as contributing to poor mental health.

The special mental states such as hallucination and confusion in schizophrenia have been creating obstacles in research in spirituality in this population. Although primary treatment should focus on symptom management, psychosocial and spiritual care should not be neglected. This study aimed to understand spirituality from the perspectives of both the patients and the healthcare professionals and its role in different stages of disease and rehabilitation.

Schizophrenic patients (n=22) and healthcare professionals including psychiatric doctors, nurses, and social workers (n=19) were recruited from an out-patient clinic of a hospital and a mental health rehabilitation complex. Semi-structured interviews on the meaning and experiences of spirituality, and its role in rehabilitation were conducted, with follow-up interviews when further clarification was needed. Interviews were transcribed into verbatim and analyzed with the assistance of computer software based on Ground theory. Trustworthiness was assured through member checking and peer scrutiny.

Both patients and professionals regarded spirituality as an inherent part of the patients’ well-being. Spirituality could be a practice, a way of thinking, sense of peace and fulfillment, and connectedness towards oneself, others, and a higher power. Spiritual experiences were helpful in the rehabilitation phase. However, some patients considered spirituality as apparitional experiences, thus hindered their recovery.

This study demonstrated that the spirituality played a part in patients’ lives and rehabilitation. Findings suggest the importance of spiritual care in this population and provide insights and roadmap for developing spiritual assessments and holistic care in psychiatric context.

This study is supported by RGCGRF/HKU745511H.

Previous studies have presented different factorial structures using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS). The core elements of burnout include emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a lack of personal accomplishment. The MBI-HSS is the most widely used questionnaire to evaluate burnout, and has been applied to various healthcare providers.

To investigate the factorial structure of a Portuguese version of the MBI-HSS for nurses in Portugal.

Secondary data analysis was implemented to explore the factor structure of MBI-HSS using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Confirmatory factor analysis was then performed to verify the modified structure for nurses in Portugal. The data provided for this study were obtained from nurses (n = 146) from 15 surgical and medical units.

The EFA found that three factors explaining 59% of the variance were extracted, and 20 out of 22 items were retained. The goodness-of-fit test was the performed using the CFA approach, and verified that the modified version of MBI-HSS is a suitable instrument for measuring burnout for nurses in Portugal.

The results confirmed the factorial structure of MBI-HSS for nurses in Portugal with a three-dimension, 20-item assessment, and the variance was not diminished in this sample. These findings demonstrate that the modified version of MBI-HSS provides a suitable instrument for measuring burnout for Portuguese nurses. Similar to other cultures, our population retained each of the items based on the theoretical structure.

Globally there is apprehension about a nursing workforce shortage. To date, no studies have connected quality of work life with other contributing and co-existing factors such as depression, anxiety and stress.

This study explores the association of the quality of compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction with anxiety, depression and stress and builds a portrait of nursing profiles to identify the factors/triggers that move a nurse from normally functioning, to at risk or very distressed levels.

Exploratory cross sectional survey of 112 registered nurses working in several departments of a Portuguese tertiary hospital using a self-report survey tool to collect data.

Burnout and secondary traumatic stress were significantly related to higher levels of anxiety and depression. Higher anxiety levels were correlated with nurses that were younger in age, working 40 h per week, and without a postgraduate qualification. Older and more experienced nurses exhibited higher levels of compassion satisfaction. Twenty percent had elevated levels of compassion fatigue, with 7.6% of the sample having a very distressed profile. At risk nurses stress and depression scores were significantly higher than nurses with higher compassion satisfaction scores.

In recognition of the importance of continuing professional education and in line with previous studies into burnout in preregistration nurses, educators should advocate including strategies in undergraduate and postgraduate nursing programs that facilitate students identifying and managing compassion fatigue and build personal resilience through the development of positive coping strategies.

Bipolar patients show broad cognitive deficits during entire course of the illness.

To evaluate a possible relationship between a severe course of illness and cognitive impairment in bipolars.

Improving life quality of bipolar patients with cognitive deficits.

75bipolar (depressive:Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score>=17, manic/hippomanic: Young Mania Rating Scale score>=12, euthymic:6month of remission, HAMDscore<=8, YMRSscore<=6) patients (DSMIVTR). All the patients were free of psychotic symptoms. Comparison group consisted of 25healthy subjects without history of neurological and/or psychiatric disorder. Cognitive battery included standardized test of IQ, attention, executive functioning, memory (working, visual, verbal). Demographic data, data about family history, psychiatric history, past/current treatment, psychosis history, duration of illness, age of onset were collected. We analyzed statistically these data and evaluate relationship between severe course of illness and cognitive impairment.

Cgnitive deficits are more frequent in bipolars with more severe course of illness, as indicated by: longer durations of mood disturbance (negatively correlated with executive function, psychomotor speed, attention, concentration and verbal memory-associated with a higher number of past manic episodes too), younger age at onset, history of multiple and frequent episodes (with manic episodes impacting neuropsychological impairment most extensively; attention and executive function deteriorated by the recurrence of episodes) and higher number of hospitalization (negatively correlated with visual and verbal memory, verbal fluency, spatial memory, psychomotor speed, executive function).

Svere course of illness influence cognitive status of bipolars. There's need for further clarification regarding the magnitude, clinical relevance and confounding variables of cognitive deficits in bipolars.

The annual global suicide mortality rate is 16 per 100,000 and suicide attempts are 20 times more frequent. We aimed at comparing patients referring to the emergency room (ER) for self-inflicted injury vs those needing psychiatric consultation for other reasons, in order to assess possible predictors of self-injury.

Determinants of ER psychiatric consultations were studied prospectively during the period 2008–2011 at the ‘Maggiore’ Hospital in Novara. A multivariate analysis was performed using a logistic regression in order to assess the potential predictors of self-injury behaviors. Results are expressed as Odds Ratio (OR) with 95% Confidence Intervals (95%CI). Statistical significance was set at p≤0.05.

In a sample of 1888 psychiatric consultations, 280 (14.8%) were due to self-inflicted injuries. Female gender (OR: 1.51; p=0.005) was found to positively correlate with attempted suicides, whereas unemployment (OR: 0.68; p=0.013) and being in the colder months of the year (OR: 0.75; p=0.043) were found to be negative correlated. A positive trend without statistical significance was observed for foreign nationality, being not married and living with parents/own family vs a negative trend was found for history of psychiatric disorders.

In accordance with other studies, we observed the female gender positively correlates with attempted suicides and sunlight may act as a trigger. In contrast with literature, individuals with a permanent job would be at higher risk of self-injury behaviours, whereas having a history of psychiatric disorders and being under the care of a psychiatrist might be a protective predictor.

Activation of microglial cells is currently explored in schizophrenia pathophysiology. Post-mortem immunohistochemistry remains the most accurate method to investigate microglial morphology and function, since high microglial plasticity limits extrapolation of in vitro and animal research results to the human brain.

To investigate microglial morphology and activation patterns, we performed immunohistochemistry with specific microglial markers: Iba1 (marker of resting and activated microglia), CD68 (marker of microglial lysosomes, indicative of phagocytic microglia) and CD64 (FcγRI, binds IgG) on formalin fixed paraffin embedded brain tissue from the Corsellis Collection (BRAIN UK), in 15 schizophrenia cases and 15 nonneurological controls. Immunostaining was quantified by image capture and analysis (Image J, NIH, US) to provide a measure of protein load. We also reviewed existing literature on microglial immunostaining in schizophrenia using Pubmed.

Few studies have examined post-mortem microglia in schizophrenia, mostly with HLA-DP/DQ/DR markers. Although frequently studied in neurological disorders Iba1, but also CD64 were never previously investigated in schizophrenia patients. Two studies explored CD68, but results were misinterpreted for resting state tissue macrophages. Our pilot study shows Iba1, CD68 and CD64 can detect microglial cells in schizophrenia brain tissue, but considerable heterogeneity exists both in patients and controls, probably due to confounding by clinical variables, e.g. age and cause of death.

Future research needs careful selection of cases and controls to minimize heterogeneity due to confounding clinical variables. Highly specific microglial markers such as Iba1, CD64 and CD68 are very useful and ought to be introduced into schizophrenia research.

Eating Disorders (EDs) are chronic illnesses requiring long-term care and significant involvement of carers. Expressed Emotion (EE) is a measure of the ‘emotional temperature’ of a family: an index of the relative's emotional answer in a certain situation. Literature suggests that EE scores are usually low in EDs families and the degree of family EE correlates with patients’ outcome.

To compare EE, life events and anxiety between patients with diagnosis of EDs and patients with other psychiatric diagnosis.

To measure the level of EE in EDs families in order to improve the quality of health care.

We administered the following tests to 20 patients with EDs and 20 patients with other psychiatric diagnosis: the Level of Expressed Emotion Scale (LEE) in two versions, one for patients and one for relatives with the purpose of evaluating intrusiveness, emotional response, attitude toward disease, tolerance and expectation; the Paykel's Interview for recent life events in which the subjects had to point out stressful events; STAI Y1 concerning state anxiety and STAI Y2 concerning trait anxiety. We also recruited co-habiting relatives and compared the relative's EE and the EE perceived by patients.

Statistical analyses are still in progress. Our preliminary results suggest that levels of EE are higher among the patients with a diagnosis of EDs, in contrast with results obtained by literature.

We expect that our results will help to shed light on the issue of EE correlates to EDs.

NGR3 substance is usually in the form of a white powder that is consumed by humans to create a legal high; feelings of euphoria and reduce tiredness. It is a GHB analogue and when consumed turns into GHB in the body. A 40year old male patient who ingested NRG3 was admitted thrice with symptoms of hearing voices, hyperactivity, agression and the inability to sleep.

To determine the probability of onset of psychotic symptoms as an effect of ingestion of NRG3.

To apply Naranjo's ADR probability scale and on the basis of the weighted questions of the scale, which examine factors such as temporal association of drug administration and event occurrence, alternative causes for the event, drug levels, dose-response relationships and previous patient experience with the substance NRG3.

Using the scale, the score indicated that there was a definite adverse drug reaction with NRG3.

A definite adverse drug reaction of psychotic symptoms did occur with the ingestion of NRG3.

Baseline values and early changes of emotional reactivity, cognitive speed, psychomotor function, motivation and sensory perception have been poorly studied in unipolar depression, although they could help to characterize different dimensions harder to capture by clinicians, give new insights on how patients are improved, and offer new markers depicting how early changes testify later treatment response.

1565 adult outpatients with MDD receiving agomelatine completed QIDS-C, CGI and MATHYS scales at inclusion, W2 and W6. The MATHYS includes 20-item self-rated visual analogue scales (from inhibition -0- to activation -10- with -5- representing the usual state) leading to five a priori dimensions (emotional reactivity, cognitive speed, psychomotor function, motivation and sensory perception).

All dimensions increased from inclusion to W2 and from W2 to W6 (p<10−3). Roughly, improvement was 2-point (out of 10) for motivation, 1.5 for psychomotor function and 0.5 for other dimensions.

Motivation: (1) had a trend as being more severe at inclusion in later non-responders (t=1.25, df=1563, p=0.10) (2) displayed the highest difference at W2 in later responders versus non-responders (t=7.98, df=1563, p<10–6) (3) correlated the highest with QIDS-C improvement (r=0.22, df=1563, p<10–6) (4) best predicted at W2 later treatment response as per the highest area under the ROC curve (AUC=0.606, 95%CI[0.588–0.643], p<0.001).

Motivation had the earliest capacity to be improved, the best predictive value for treatment response and the largest global margin of progress in depressed outpatients. Assessing self-reported motivation in MDD could offer an interesting paradigm shift while assessing linear changes of depressive symptoms.

Schizophrenia has genetic, epigenetic and environmental components. Recent reports showed that the IL3 gene, colony stimulating factor 2 receptor alpha (CSF2RA), beta (CSF2RB) and IL-3 receptor alpha (IL3RA), the IL-specific receptor subunits for CSF2 and IL3, respectively, are associated with schizophrenia.

Association analyses of rs6603272 variant of the IL3R gene and rs4129148 variant of CSFR2A gene with schizophrenia have been studied.

We had 166 schizophrenic patients and 246 healthy controls. In both case control studies, a PCR-RFLP method was used.

The genoype frequencies of the IL3R gene rs6603272 variant were TT, 54.8, TG, 40.4, GG, 4.8 % in cases, TT, 57.7, TG, 36.2 and GG, 6.1% in controls. The frequency of T allele in controls and cases was 76% and 75% respectively. Similarly, the genotype frequencies of the CSFR2A gene rs4129148 variant were GG, 44.6; GC,39.8; CC,15.7 % in cases and GG,43.9; GC,43.1; and CC, 13.0% in controls. The G allele frequency was 64% in cases and 65% in controls.

In our study, we did not find an association between the rs66033272 variant of IL3RA gene and schizophrenia (χ2=0.896; P=0.639). Nor did we find an association between the CSFR2A rs4129148 variant and schizophrenia (χ2= 0.770; P=0.681)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. What is less apparent to the casual observer are thepsychological costs borne by the caregiver. Their lives are marked with significant changes concerning family relationships and social life.

The purpose of this study was to define the correlation between the psychophysical functioning of the AD patient, the quality of caregiversufferer relations and the psychological costs borne (depression and burden) by the caregiver.

The design is a cross-sectional study. This study encompassed 292 caregivers. The following questionnaire methods were used: BDI, Caregiver Burden/Burnout Inventory, Emotional Bond Questionnaire (caregivers) and MMSE and ADL (patients).

The study indicated the greatest level of depression and caregiving-related burdens in the spouses group, and the least in the friends/others group. The most important predictor of the level of burden turned out to be the nature of the caregiver-patient relationship. The positive experiences with the AD patients from the pre-onset time are an important protective factor in all the groups of caregivers.

The fact that the group of spouses was found to be the most affected by the burden of care indicates the need to provide them with help. One of the most significant predictors of caregiving burnout in this group is a sense of loss and positive experiences. Therefore it seems reasonable to assume that refreshing and nurturing such memories could also enhance the caregiver's ability experiences and emotions predominate.

Dysfunctional coping patterns, low self-efficacy, and an excessive use of external control beliefs are assumed to be risk factors for psychosis. They are already present in patients with first-epsiode psychosis (FEP). However, it remains unclear if help-seeking patients symptomatically at-risk for psychosis (AR) show similar patterns of coping and competence/control beliefs as FEP patients.

We compared the frequency of deficits in coping, self-efficacy, and competence beliefs between AR according to the ultra-high risk and/or basic symptom criteria (n=21; mean age: 19.4±4.6) and FEP patients (n=22; mean age: 20.0±4.6). Coping strategies were assessed through the Stress-Coping-Questionnaires (SVF-120/SVF-KJ); self-efficacy and competence beliefs through the Competence and Control Beliefs Questionnaire (FKK).

Most AR and FEP patients demonstrated dysfunctional coping patterns, low self-efficicacy, and biases in control beliefs. Compared to FEP, AR patients reported even more deficits in positive coping strategies and self-efficacy than FEP. Moreover, they showed an excessive use of external fatalistic beliefs. In contrast, FEP patients demonstrated to be overly self-confident.

Dysfunctional coping and competence/control belief patterns are present before the onset of psychosis and are promising predictors of conversion to psychosis. Therefore, they appear to be important treatment targets for early intervention in psychosis. As deficit patterns of AR differ from those of FEP patients, interventions need to be tailored to the special treatment needs of both groups to prevent transition or relapse to psychosis.

chronic neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and Parkinson's disease (PD) determines highly social impact through direct and indirect cost burden, so that management of quality of life(QoL) of these patients is often difficult.

to assess whether the relantionship between depression and chronic neurological diseases is relevant in quantifying QoL.

to proove that associated depression in patients with serious neurological diseases should not be minimized.

we followed up 20 patients (10 with MS-mean age 39.1, mainly women and 10 with PD-mean age 55.8, mainly men) during one year after diagnosis of depression; the mean time of disease evolution was 7.83 years for MS patients and 6.33 for PD patients; we compared them with a lot o patients matching as age and sex diagnosed with depression, without other comorbidities. Both lots were assessed every 3 month by Beck Depression Inventory, Fatigue Impact Scale and QoL Short form-36 scores. Time of positive diagnosis was over one year, even if symptoms were present for at least double time.

patients with chronic neurological diseases had a less favourable outcome, especially young women, than control group, revealing more problems especially in somatization field and in accepting psychiatric help; there were also more drug interactions that led to patient compliance difficulties.

even if there is resistance in accepting psychiatric diagnosis and treatment, we must do all efforts to persuade patients to undergo specialized treatment and supportive psychotherapy in order to improve their's quality of life.

The incidence of psychotic disorders is increased among men and culminates in adolescence. After menopause, there is a second peak in the incidence among women. It has therefore been suggested that sex steroids, such as oxytocin and testosterone, may confer decreased or increased risks for psychotic disorders.

To investigate differences in peripheral oxytocin and testosterone plasma levels in patients with a first psychotic episode, their unaffected siblings and healthy controls.

Plasma hormone assays of oxytocin and testosterone were obtained from 85 patients with a psychotic disorder, 27 of their unaffected siblings and 59 healthy controls. Sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) was collected to calculate the free androgen index (FAI; testosterone/SHBG), a broad indicator of androgen status. We analyzed group differences in hormone levels, as well as associations with demographic and illness parameters.

There were no significant differences in plasma oxytocin levels or FAI across groups. Adjusted for age, smoking, time of blood draw and BMI, we found a significant group difference in plasma testosterone levels in males (F(6,72)= 2.8; p<0.05), not in females. This effect was primarily caused by significantly higher mean plasma testosterone levels in antipsychotic-naive men (n=15) compared to their unaffected brothers (p<0.01) and healthy controls (p<0.05).

This study contradicts previous findings of decreased testosterone and oxytocin levels in patients with a psychotic disorder. Increased plasma testosterone in antipsychotic-naive male patients may reflect social distrust and paranoid thinking. It further underlines a potential mechanism of antipsychotic medication of normalizing androgen activity.

There is a lack of accurate screening tools for suicide risk in the patients presenting to emergency departments. The Personality and Life Event (PLE) Scale, a set of the 27 most discriminative items from a collection of questionnaires usually employed in the assessment of suicidal behavior, demostrated an elevated accuracy, sensibility, and specificity in classifying suicide attempters.

To validate the self-administered PLE Scale.

In order to examine its psychometric properties, the PLE scale was administered to 59 suicide attempters, 48 psychiatric controls, and 69 medical patients attending the Puerta de Hierro emergency department. To examine its reliability, we used: 1) Cronbach's coefficient α to evaluate the internal consistency; 2) test-retest reliability to assess if the scale is stable over time. Interrater reliability is not relevant as the PLE is a self-report. To assess its construct validity, we used some of Beck's Suicide Intent Scale (SIS). All analyses were carried out using SPSS v.20 (Macintosh).

The most frequent criteria for suicide attempters were item 4 (‘I often feel empty inside’; 88.1%) and 20 (‘I act on impulse’; 79,7%). Mean (± SD) of the PLE Scale in suicide attempters, psychiatric controls, and medical controls was 74.49 (± 32.44), 57.19 (± 29.63), and 17.48 (± 21.15), respectively. The PLE had an acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha =0,674).

Our preliminary findings support the reliability, construct validity, and ussefulness of the PLE to identify suicide attempters to those attending to emergency departments.

The ABCB 1-gene product P-glycoprotein is an efflux pump in the blood-brain-barrier. Different alleles of the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs2032583 were associated with highly different treatment responses to antidepressants in a retrospective study suggesting a different activity of the P-glycoprotein resulting in different levels of antidepressant in the brain.

To prospectively test whether escitalopram is associated with a stronger REM-sleep suppression in homozygote or heterozygote cytosine-carriers of that SNP than homozygote thymine-carriers, suggesting higher escitalopram brain levels in cytosine-carriers.

10 male and 10 female healthy, young cytosine-carriers, 20 male and 10 female homozygote thymine-carriers received escitalopram 10mg/day for four days. Prior and after that period, polysomnography was recorded.

At baseline, sleep in males was worse in cytosine-carriers than homozygote thymine-carriers as indicated, for example, by a significantly longer time awake (cytosine-carriers: 85±15 min; thymine-carriers: 44±6 min). Sleep in females did not differ between groups. In both groups, REM sleep was significantly reduced after treatment but there were no significant differences (cytosine-carriers: 78±5 min (baseline) to 46±4 min; thymine-carriers: 89±4 (baseline) to 49±5 min. All treatment effects of escitalopram on sleep (prolonged REM latency and sleep onset latency, increased non-REM-sleep, stage 2 sleep, stage 4 sleep, reduced REM sleep) did neither depend on sex nor genotype.

Sleep in males but not in females is relevantly influenced by the alleles of SNP rs2032583 of the ABCB1-gene. However, our hypothesis of a different REM sleep suppression due to different brain levels of escitalopram was not corroborated.