The incidence and severity of Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) have increased in Western countries. However, there are limited data regarding the epidemiology of CDI in Eastern countries. This nationwide study was conducted in 17 hospitals to determine temporal trends in CDI incidence (from 2004 to 2008) in South Korea. The total incidence of CDI in Korea was 1·7 cases/1000 adult admissions in 2004, and 2·7/1000 cases in 2008 (P = 0·028). When analysing the clinical features of 1367 CDI patients diagnosed in 2008, oral metronidazole was effective as a first-line treatment for CDI (61·9%). Relapse rate was 8·9% and complicated CDI was only observed in 3·6%. The incidence of CDI increased significantly in Korea from 2004 to 2008. Although the clinical features were milder than in Western countries, the increasing burden of CDI needs ongoing surveillance systems.

A total of 245 patients with confirmed 2009 H1N1 influenza were admitted to the intensive-care units of 28 hospitals (South Korea). Their mean age was 55·3 years with 68·6% aged >50 years, and 54·7% male. Nine were obese and three were pregnant. One or more comorbidities were present in 83·7%, and nosocomial acquisition occurred in 14·3%. In total, 107 (43·7%) patients received corticosteroids and 66·1% required mechanical ventilation. Eighty (32·7%) patients died within 30 days after onset of symptoms and 99 (40·4%) within 90 days. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the clinician's decision to prescribe corticosteroids, older age, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score and nosocomial bacterial pneumonia were independent risk factors for 90-day mortality. In contrast with Western countries, critical illness in Korea in relation to 2009 H1N1 was most common in older patients with chronic comorbidities; nosocomial acquisition occurred occasionally but disease in obese or pregnant patients was uncommon.

A prospective survey was conducted in patients admitted to 11 randomly selected general practices and eight hospitals located in six provinces of Poland. For each patient meeting the international acute gastrointestinal infection (AGI) case definition criteria, information was collected on healthcare resources used. Antibacterial drug consumption was assessed using defined daily doses (DDD) and extrapolated to the national level using results from a parallel study of AGI incidence in the community. Additionally, a logistic multivariable model was fitted assessing determinants of antibacterial drug administration. Valid questionnaires were collected from 385 general practitioner (GP) consultations and 504 hospital admissions. Antibacterials for systemic use were prescribed during 60 (16%) GP consultations and 179 (36%) hospital admissions. The estimated societal AGI-related consumption of antibacterials amounted to 5·48 million DDD (95% uncertainty interval 1·56–14·12 million DDD). Antibacterial prescription was associated with work in large practices [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 3·16] and hospital wards (aOR 2·87), compared to small general practices, referral for microbiological testing (aOR 2·88), presence of fever (aOR 2·50), presence of mucus or blood in stool (aOR 1·94), age >65 years vs. <5 years (aOR 1·88), and rural vs. urban residence (aOR 1·53). Despite the fact that antibacterials were prescribed to a minority of consulted AGI patients, their consumption in society was not negligible due to the high prevalence of AGI symptoms. Prescription of antibacterial drugs should be restricted to cases with specific indications, preferably following microbiological investigation of AGI aetiology. To achieve this, clear national recommendations should be widely disseminated to physicians, and included in medical training curricula.

Incidence of various diseases can increase following a flood. We aimed to identify professionals in Copenhagen who became ill after contact with 2 July 2011 floodwater/sediment and determine risks and protective factors associated with illness. We conducted a cohort study of employees engaged in post-flood management activities. Participants completed a questionnaire collecting information about demographics, floodwater/sediment exposure, compliance with standard precautions, and symptoms of illness. Overall, 257 professionals participated, with 56 (22%) cases. Risk of illness was associated with not washing hands after floodwater/sediment contact [relative risk (RR) 2·45], exposure to floodwater at work and home (RR 2·35), smoking (RR 1·92), direct contact with floodwater (RR 1·86), and eating/drinking when in contact with floodwater (RR 1·77). Professionals need to follow standard precautions when in contact with floodwater/sediment, especially proper hand hygiene after personal protective equipment use and before eating/drinking and smoking.

The objective of this study was to identify the most reliable approach for prevalence estimation of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection in clinically healthy slaughtered cattle. Sampling of macroscopically suspect tissue was compared to systematic sampling. Specimens of ileum, jejunum, mesenteric and caecal lymph nodes were examined for MAP infection using bacterial microscopy, culture, histopathology and immunohistochemistry. MAP was found most frequently in caecal lymph nodes, but sampling more tissues optimized the detection rate. Examination by culture was most efficient while combination with histopathology increased the detection rate slightly. MAP was detected in 49/50 animals with macroscopic lesions representing 1·35% of the slaughtered cattle examined. Of 150 systematically sampled macroscopically non-suspect cows, 28·7% were infected with MAP. This indicates that the majority of MAP-positive cattle are slaughtered without evidence of macroscopic lesions and before clinical signs occur. For reliable prevalence estimation of MAP infection in slaughtered cattle, systematic random sampling is essential.

Asymptomatic carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is an important risk factor for developing infection, as well as a key contributor to transmission. Despite the fact that childcare workers are at known risk for infections, little research has focused on bacterial carriage in this occupational group. We conducted a cross-sectional study comparing the prevalence of S. aureus in 110 childcare employees with the prevalence in 111 unexposed participants. Questionnaire data was collected for employees, unexposed adults, and children. Multivariate analysis allowed for adjustment for confounders. Data on work-related exposures are presented as well. The prevalence of S. aureus in employees, unexposed adults, children, and on surfaces was 35·2%, 33·6%, 19·8%, and 9·8%, respectively. Washing children's hands upon their arrival at childcare facilities may decrease the risk of S. aureus carriage in employees (odds ratio 0·17, 95% confidence interval 0·095–0·32, P < 0·0001).

The phylogenetic and epidemic relationships of 104 clinical isolates of Clostridium difficile from three hospitals of different geographical and population sources in China were investigated by multilocus sequence typing. Twenty-two sequence types (STs) were identified, four of which, ST117, ST118, ST119 and ST129, were novel. No geographically specific and host population-specific phylogenetic lineages were found and there was no correlation between geographical origin or host population and strain genotype. ST37 was the dominant type in our survey but the four novel STs underline the high genetic diversity and unique polymorphisms in C. difficile from China.

Meningococcal meningitis is a major public health problem in the African Belt. Despite the obvious seasonality of epidemics, the factors driving them are still poorly understood. Here, we provide a first attempt to predict epidemics at the spatio-temporal scale required for in-year response, using a purely empirical approach. District-level weekly incidence rates for Niger (1986–2007) were discretized into latent, alert and epidemic states according to pre-specified epidemiological thresholds. We modelled the probabilities of transition between states, accounting for seasonality and spatio-temporal dependence. One-week-ahead predictions for entering the epidemic state were generated with specificity and negative predictive value >99%, sensitivity and positive predictive value >72%. On the annual scale, we predict the first entry of a district into the epidemic state with sensitivity 65·0%, positive predictive value 49·0%, and an average time gained of 4·6 weeks. These results could inform decisions on preparatory actions.

The relationship between sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and prostate cancer (PC) remains inconclusive. Moreover, all such studies to date have been conducted in Western populations. This study aimed to investigate the risk of PC following STI using a population-based matched-cohort design in Taiwan. The study cohort comprised 1055 patients with STIs, and 10 550 randomly selected subjects were used as a comparison cohort. Cox proportional hazards regression analysis revealed that the hazard ratio for PC during the 5-year follow-up period for patients with a STI was 1·95 (95% confidence interval 1·18–3·23), that of comparison subjects after adjusting for urbanization level, geographical region, monthly income, hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidaemia, obesity, chronic prostatitis, history of vasectomy, tobacco use disorder, and alcohol abuse. We concluded that the risk of PC was higher for men who were diagnosed with a STI in an Asian population.

Although social networks are known to play an important role in drug-using behaviours associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, literature on social networks and HCV is inconsistent. This exploratory study examined HCV RNA distribution within a social network of anti-HCV-positive non-medical prescription opioid users (NMPOUs) in rural Appalachia. Participants were tested serologically for HCV RNA, and behavioural, demographic, and network data were collected using interview-administered questionnaires. Multivariate analyses were performed using logistic regression. Behavioural and demographic characteristics did not differ by RNA status. In the multivariate model, recent injecting drug users (IDUs) were more likely to be RNA positive [odds ratio (OR) 4·06, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·04–15·83], and turnover into an IDU's drug network was significantly protective (OR 0·15, 95% CI 0·03–0·75). This is the first study to date to examine HCV distribution in rural NMPOUs from a network perspective and demonstrates that network characteristics significantly contribute to the epidemiology of HCV in this understudied, high-risk population.

Between July 2009 and June 2011, rotavirus was detected in 507 of 4597 episodes of acute gastroenteritis in children aged <3 years in Gipuzkoa (Basque Country, Spain), of which the G-type was determined in 458 (90·3%). During the annual seasonal epidemic of 2010–2011, the unusual G-type 12 was predominant, causing 65% (145/223) of cases of rotavirus gastroenteritis. All the G12 strains were clustered in lineage III and were preferentially associated with P-type 8. This epidemic was characterized by broad geographical distribution (rural and urban) and, over 7 months, affected both infants and children, the most frequently affected being children between 4 and 24 months. Of children with rotavirus G12, 16% required hospital admission, the admission rate in children aged <2 years being 20·7 cases/10 000 children. The sudden emergence and predominance of G12 rotaviruses documented in this winter outbreak suggest that they may soon become a major human rotavirus genotype.

This study investigated anti-dengue serotype-specific neutralizing antibodies in a random sample of dengue IgG-positive individuals identified in a survey performed in a hyperendemic setting in northeastern Brazil in 2005. Of 323 individuals, 174 (53·8%) had antibodies to dengue virus serotype 1 (DENV-1), 104 (32·2%) to DENV-2 and 301 (93·2%) to DENV-3. Monotypic infections by DENV-3 were the most frequent infection (35·6%). Of 109 individuals aged <15 years, 61·5% presented multitypic infections. The force of infection estimated by a catalytic model was 0·9%, 0·4% and 2·5% person-years for DENV-1, DENV-2 and DENV-3, respectively. By the age of 5 years, about 70%, 30% and 40% of participants were immune to DENV-3, DENV-2 and DENV-1, respectively. The data suggest that infection with DENV-1, -2 and -3 is intense at early ages, demonstrating the need for research efforts to investigate dengue infection in representative population samples of Brazilian children during early infancy.

Occurrence of Yersinia spp. in wild ruminants was studied and the strains were characterized to get more information on the epidemiology of enteropathogenic Yersinia in the wildlife. In total, faecal samples of 77 red deer, 60 chamois, 55 roe deer and 27 alpine ibex were collected during 3 months of the hunting season in 2011. The most frequently identified species was Y. enterocolitica found in 13%, 10%, 4% and 2% of roe deer, red deer, alpine ibex and chamois, respectively. Interestingly, one Y. enterocolitica O:3 strain, isolated from an alpine ibex, carried the important virulence genes located on the virulence plasmid (yadA and virF) and in the chromosome (ail, hreP, myfA and ystA). Most of the Y. enterocolitica strains belonged to biotype 1A of which 14 were ystB positive. Further studies are needed to clarify the importance of alpine ibex as a reservoir of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica.

This study aimed to estimate possible changes in seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG and IgM antibodies in people living in the area of Massa and Carrara (central Italy), in recent years. Serum samples from over 13 000 individuals were tested for both IgG and IgM anti-Toxoplasma antibodies using an immunoenzymatic method (Access® Toxo IgG, and Access® Toxo IgM II, Beckman Coulter Inc., USA). Our survey showed a decreasing trend of overall seroprevalence of 24·4% [95% confidence interval (CI) 22·62–25·71] in 2010 compared to 31·0% (95% CI 29·29–32·72) in 2007. A positive trend according to age was found, with low positivity observed in younger age groups. For women of reproductive age the prevalence of IgG antibodies was 30·2% (95% CI 28·44–31·96) in 2007 and 23·6% (95% CI 22·05–25·20) in 2010. IgM seroprevalence in women of this age group also progressively decreased from 1·6% to 0·97% during the study period. Our study confirms a decline of toxoplasmosis in Western countries.

Few studies have formally examined the relationship between meteorological factors and the incidence of child pneumonia in the tropics, despite the fact that most child pneumonia deaths occur there. We examined the association between four meteorological exposures (rainy days, sunshine, relative humidity, temperature) and the incidence of clinical pneumonia in young children in the Philippines using three time-series methods: correlation of seasonal patterns, distributed lag regression, and case-crossover. Lack of sunshine was most strongly associated with pneumonia in both lagged regression [overall relative risk over the following 60 days for a 1-h increase in sunshine per day was 0·67 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0·51–0·87)] and case-crossover analysis [odds ratio for a 1-h increase in mean daily sunshine 8–14 days earlier was 0·95 (95% CI 0·91–1·00)]. This association is well known in temperate settings but has not been noted previously in the tropics. Further research to assess causality is needed.

We investigated the presence of Mycobacterium spp. in livestock in northern China. Of the 163 clinical samples selected for this study, 20 were from throat swabs of dairy cows, and 143 were tissue samples (including lung tissue from one reindeer, hilar lymph node tissue from 55 cows, and liver tissue from 87 sheep). A total of 41 mycobacterial isolates were identified including two isolates of M. caprae and 39 non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) isolates. Multi-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) profiles of the two M. caprae isolates proved to be unique. This is the first report of M. caprae isolates from livestock in China. This study also confirms previous reports that NTM is common in livestock in northern China.

Community-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus (CA-MRSA) accounts for a growing proportion of hospital-onset infections, and colonization is a risk factor. This study aimed to determine changes in the prevalence of CA-MRSA colonization in paediatric intensive-care units (ICUs). A total of 495 paediatric patients colonized with MRSA from neonatal, medical, surgical, and cardiac ICUs between 2001 and 2009 were identified. Isolates were characterized by spa type, staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC) mec type and the presence of the genes encoding Panton–Valentine leukocidin (PVL). The proportion of patients colonized with MRSA remained stable (average 3·2%). The proportion of isolates with spa type 1, SCCmec type IV and PVL increased over time to maximums in 2009 of 36·1% (P < 0·001), 54·2% (P = 0·03) and 28·9% (P = 0·003), respectively. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns showed increasing proportions susceptible to clindamycin, gentamicin, tetracycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (P values <0·001). In conclusion, the proportion of MRSA-colonized children in ICUs with CA-MRSA increased significantly over time.

Cirrhotic patients are prone to having infections, which may aggravate hepatic encephalopathy (HE). However, the effect of infections on mortality in HE cirrhotic patients is not well described. The National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Programme, was used to identify 4150 adult HE cirrhotic patients hospitalized between 1 January 2004 and 31 December 2004. Nine hundred and eighty-five patients (23·7%) had one or more co-existing infections during their hospitalization. After Cox proportional hazard regression modelling adjusted by the patients' gender, age, and medical comorbidity disorders, the hazard ratios (HRs) in HE patients with infections for 30-day, 30- to 90-day, and 90-day to 1-year mortalities were 1·66 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1·42–1·94], 1·51 (95% CI 1·23–1·85) and 1·34 (95% CI 1·13–1·58), respectively. Compared to the non-infection group, the HRs of pneumonia, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, urinary tract infection, sepsis without specific focus (SWSF), cellulitis, and biliary tract infection were 2·11, 1·48, 1·06, 2·21, 1·06, and 0·78, respectively, for 30-day mortality; 1·82, 1·22, 0·93, 2·24, 0·31, and 2·82, respectively, for 30- to 90-day mortality; and 2·03, 0·82, 1·24, 1·64, 1·14, and 0·60, respectively, for 90-day to 1-year mortality for HE cirrhotic patients. We conclude that infections increase the mortality of HE cirrhotic patients, especially pneumonia and SWSF.