Disease and mortality rates for Streptococcus pneumoniae infections are much higher in patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) than in age-matched patients without SCD. Pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) has been proposed as a component in human vaccines against S. pneumoniae to provide greater breadth of coverage than can be obtained with the 7-valent conjugate vaccine. The cross-reactivity of PspA is associated with the ‘PspA family’ structure. In this study we examined strains of S. pneumoniae from patients with and without SCD to determine whether the strains infecting the hypersusceptible population of SCD patients were limited to the same two PspA families already known to comprise over 95% of strains infecting non-SCD patients. Each strain was also evaluated according to the presence or absence of specific PCR fragments based on repetitive BOX elements to screen for possible SCD-associated clonal structure. Strains from SCD and non-SCD patients were similarly dispersed among the most common BOX PCR groups and strains from both groups expressed a similar distribution of PspA variants. Thus, a PspA vaccine designed for the population at large should also be appropriate for patients with SCD.

Studies of non-polio enterovirus prevalence and transmissibility in developing countries are limited and few studies have investigated specific risk factors for infection. An epidemiological survey of non-polio enterovirus among families in Mongolia was conducted in the late summer of 2003. Stools of 122 healthy persons were collected weekly for 5 weeks. Eight serotypes of non-polio enteroviruses (echovirus 30, 33, 12, 25, coxsackievirus A10, A2, A4, A24) were isolated from 62 persons, with an overall isolation rate of 51%, and 64% and 35% among children under 10 years and adults over age 21 years. Fifty-four per cent of isolations were due to intrafamilial infection. Analysis of risk factors for infection suggested contamination of indoor kitchen, bathroom, toilet, and waste disposal area. Hand washing after defecation was protective against infection. Our study findings stress the importance of hand washing and cleaning hygienic facilities to prevent infection by enteric viruses in the home environment.

In 2003, 14 cases of multidrug-resistant Salmonella Newport infections were reported. This is the first documented foodborne outbreak of multidrug-resistant S. Newport in France. The blaCMY gene was present in all isolates. All cases reported having eaten horse meat from a common wholesaler. The country of origin of the imported meat could not be identified.

Two techniques are currently used to evaluate the humoral immune responses to rabies vaccination: ELISA, which detects binding antibodies to viral antigens and the WHO reference rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT), which assays in vitro virus-neutralizing antibodies. In this study, we have comparatively evaluated antibody responses of dogs reared either in an experimental kennel or living in field conditions after vaccination with a cell culture-derived rabies vaccine. In experimental conditions, both ELISA and RFFIT techniques were well correlated. However, in field conditions, they yielded discrepant results particularly in evaluating the residual rabies immunity before vaccine administration and in identifying seroconverted dogs. After rabies vaccination in field conditions, while similar antibody titres and seroconversion rates were obtained using either technique, the discrimination of a given dog according to the seroconversion threshold depended on the assay. We concluded, that whereas in experimental conditions, ELISA and RFFIT were well correlated, in field conditions ELISA yielded upper estimates. Consequently, RFFIT, although a cumbersome test, should continue to be considered as the reference rabies antibody assay technique. A seroconversion threshold of 0·5 IU/ml should be cautiously considered and a higher threshold (1 IU/ml) could be more appropriate in the evaluation of rabies immunity in the field in order to marginalize the interfering factors.

To estimate the incidence of Lyme borreliosis in France, describe its clinical presentations, and assess its potential risk factors, we conducted a nationwide prospective study in the French Sentinelles Network, consisting of 1178 general practitioners (GPs). Of these, 875 (74%), i.e. 1·6% of all French GPs, participated in the study from May 1999 to April 2000. Eighty-six cases of Lyme disease were reported and validated, of which 77 (90%) consisted of erythema migrans. At national level, the incidence was estimated at 9·4/100000 inhabitants. Compared to the French general population, Lyme disease patients were older (P<10−4), more were living in rural areas (P<10−3), and amongst the working population, more were farmers (P<10−3) and fewer, salaried workers (P<0·005). Cervidae density correlated strongly with the estimated regional incidence of Lyme disease (r=0·82). Both incidence data and identified risk factors can help to target measures for its prevention and treatment.

The objective of our study was to evaluate the sociodemographic factors associated with completion of screening for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) among undocumented immigrants in Brescia, Italy. Screening for LTBI was offered to 649 immigrants; 213 (33%) immigrants completed the first step of screening; only 44% (55/124) of individuals with a positive tuberculin skin test result started treatment for LTBI. The univariate analysis showed that being unmarried, of Senegalese nationality and being interviewed by a health-care worker with the same native language as the immigrant were significantly associated with completion of screening for LTBI. In the multiple logistic regression, being interviewed in the native language of the health-care worker (OR 2·5, 95% CI 1·3–4·8, P=0·004) and being of Senegalese origin (OR 2·3, 95% CI 1·4–3·6, P=0·0005) were independently associated with adherence to LTBI screening. Our results suggest that knowledge of the sociodemographic characteristics of immigrants, and the participation of health-care workers of the same cultural origin as the immigrant during the visits, can be an important tool to improve completion of screening for LTBI.

The aim of this analysis was to evaluate the effects of the presence of the IL-1RA gene polymorphism and H. pylori infection on markers of a systemic inflammatory response taking into account virulence markers of this infection. Serum concentrations of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and tumour-necrosis factor (TNF)-α of 479 occasional blood donors were not statistically significantly higher in subjects having antibodies against H. pylori, or more specifically against CagA and VacA, and being homozygous for the pro-inflammatory IL-1RN*2 allele compared to others after adjustment for covariates. The findings suggest that the possible pro-inflammatory effect of the IL-1RN*2 allele in combination with H. pylori infection is limited to the mucosal level.

We observed an outbreak of Q fever in a prison population. Overall, 65 of the 600 prison inmates developed the disease. The location of the prison cells had no apparent effect on the risk of infection. The outbreak was probably due to exposure to dust contaminated by a passing flock of sheep, which at the time of the outbreak was engaged in lambing. These findings highlight the possible emergence of Q fever in settings and populations not normally thought of as being at risk of exposure to the infection.

To the Editor:

In a previous report [1], we described significant risks for hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) positivity associated with receipt of tattoos, particularly while incarcerated, among a street-recruited population of injection drug users (IDUs) in New Mexico, United States from 1995 to 1997. Another recent report in this Journal, based on a study conducted on prisoners in Australia, found tattooing in prison to be an independent risk for HCV [2]. Another report also described a strong association between tattoos and HCV, but found the strongest association to be with commercial tattooing venues [3]. That study found the risk associated with receipt of tattoos in prison elevated, but not statistically significant. That same report reviewed other articles and found a significant risk for HCV infection associated with tattoos in six out of eight studies that had data available. Further, a recent U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) document summarized the literature on risks for hepatitis infections in correctional settings and developed extensive control guidelines [4].

Epidemiol. Infect. 133 (2005), 217–227

N. WEIS, L. BERTHELSEN, H. WACHMANN, AND I. LIND

The meningococcal antibody test: how useful in the diagnosis of meningococcal disease?

During the correction of this article an error was introduced into the Summary. In the first sentence, the number of blood samples received was incorrectly given as 92537. The correct number of samples is 9257. The error does not affect the results or conclusions presented elsewhere in the article.

We apologize to the authors and readers for this error.

Norovirus infection is associated with approximately 90% of epidemic non-bacterial acute gastroenteritis. The objective of this study is to describe an outbreak of norovirus genogroup I gastroenteritis which affected workers in a hospital and was attributed to food prepared by an infected food handler. Forty cases were detected, of whom 80% were interviewed. The index case was the cook employed in the hospital cafeteria. The following symptoms were observed: abdominal pain in 90·6%, vomiting in 71·9%, diarrhoea in 71·9%, general indisposition in 62·5%, headaches in 53·1% and fever in 32·4% of cases. The initial symptoms were abdominal pain in 37% and vomiting in 28%. Of the 14 samples analysed by RT–PCR, 12 (86%) were positive for a genogroup I norovirus. After sequencing the strain was identified as genotype Desert Shield. Many of the foodstuffs consumed were made by hand, favouring transmission from the index case to the cafeteria users.

A novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a confirmatory Western blot (WB) to detect human antibodies against Francisella tularensis were evaluated. The ELISA was based on partially purified lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the WB on whole antigen of F. tularensis. Positive WB showed a typical LPS ladder. Sensitivity and specificity of the ELISA, as assessed in 104 positive sera and 1149 ‘normal’ sera from healthy young adults, were 99·0% and 97·1% respectively. Sensitivity of the WB was close to 100%, whereas specificity was 99·6%. Antibodies against the LPS of F. tularensis were detected in four of the ‘normal’ sera in both ELISA and WB. The assays were further evaluated using sera of individuals from Norway, Sweden and Kosovo suspected to be infected in tularemia outbreaks. Results revealed that the combination of ELISA and WB is suitable for laboratory confirmation of tularemia as well as for large-scale epidemiological studies.

To determine the tick species that bite humans in the province of Soria (Spain) and ascertain the tick-borne pathogens that threaten people's health in that province, 185 tick specimens were collected from 179 patients who sought medical advice at health-care centres. The ticks were identified, and their DNA examined by PCR for pathogens. Most ticks were collected in autumn and spring (59 and 57 respectively). Nine species of ticks were identified, the most frequent being Dermacentor marginatus (55·7%), Ixodes ricinus (12·4%) and Rhipicephalus bursa (11·9%). Ninety-seven females, 66 males, 21 nymphs and one larva were identified. Twenty-six ticks carried DNA from Rickettsia spp. (11 Rickettsia slovaca, 6 Rickettsia spp. RpA4/DnS14, 1 Rickettsia massiliae/Bar29, and 8 unidentified); two ticks carried DNA from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and seven ticks harboured DNA from Anaplasma phagocytophilum.

The seroepidemiology of Cryptosporidium infection was investigated in a representative sample of a normal population in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil using a recombinant form of the immunodominant 27-kDa sporozoite antigen. IgG seropositivity was low in infants following loss of maternal antibody but quickly increased to ~60% by 5 years, then 80% by the age of 10 years, after which prevalence remained constant. The broad range of antibody concentrations is consistent with previous reports that the IgG response to C. parvum is short-lived. There is also evidence that average antibody concentrations increase with age. Results suggest that the recombinant antigen may be a more sensitive method of measuring seroprevalence than the native antigen in Western blot. Although cross-sectional studies can provide an insight into the epidemiology of C. parvum in normal populations, further studies investigating the dynamics of the humoral immune responses to Cryptosporidium and the use of serology in epidemiological studies are required.