Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-dfsvx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T02:51:31.578Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Transdiagnostic factors and pathways to multifinality: The error-related negativity predicts whether preschool irritability is associated with internalizing versus externalizing symptoms at age 9

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2016

Ellen M. Kessel ,
Alexandria Meyer ,
Greg Hajcak ,
Lea R. Dougherty ,
Dana C. Torpey-Newman ,
Gabrielle A. Carlson  and
Daniel N. Klein
Ellen M. Kessel*
Affiliation:
Stony Brook University
Alexandria Meyer
Affiliation:
Stony Brook University
Greg Hajcak
Affiliation:
Stony Brook University
Lea R. Dougherty
Affiliation:
University of Maryland–College Park
Dana C. Torpey-Newman
Affiliation:
Stony Brook University
Gabrielle A. Carlson
Affiliation:
Stony Brook University School of Medicine
Daniel N. Klein
Affiliation:
Stony Brook University Stony Brook University School of Medicine
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Ellen M. Kessel, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-2500; E-mail: ellen.kessel@stonybrook.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

There is increasing interest among developmental psychopathologists in broad transdiagnostic factors that give rise to a wide array of clinical presentations (multifinality), but little is known about how these processes lead to particular psychopathological manifestations over the course of development. We examined whether individual differences in the error-related negativity (ΔERN), a neural indicator of error monitoring, predicts whether early persistent irritability, a prototypical transdiagnostic construct, is associated with later internalizing versus externalizing outcomes. When children were 3 years old, mothers were interviewed about children's persistent irritability and completed questionnaires about their children's psychopathology. Three years later, EEG was recorded while children performed a go/no-go task to measure the ΔERN. When children were approximately 9 years old, mothers again completed questionnaires about their children's psychopathology. The results indicated that among children who were persistently irritable at age 3, an enhanced or more negative ΔERN at age 6 predicted the development of internalizing symptoms at age 9, whereas a blunted or smaller ΔERN at age 6 predicted the development of externalizing symptoms. Our results suggest that variation in error monitoring predicts, and may even shape, the expression of persistent irritability and differentiates developmental trajectories from preschool persistent irritability to internalizing versus externalizing outcomes in middle to late childhood.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 28 , Special Issue 4pt1: Mechanisms of Comorbidity, Continuity, and Discontinuity in Psychopathology , November 2016 , pp. 913 - 926
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles: An integrated system of multi-informant assessment. Burlington, VT: ASEBA.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: ASEBA.Google Scholar
Aebi, M., Barra, S., Bessler, C., Steinhausen, H., Walitza, S., & Plattner, B. (in press). Oppositional defiant disorder dimensions and subtypes among detained male adolescent offenders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. C., Williams, S., McGee, R., & Silva, P. A. (1987). DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children: Prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 69–76.Google Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87.Google Scholar
Anokhin, A. P., & Golosheykin, S. (2015). Neural correlates of error monitoring in adolescents prospectively predict initiation of tobacco use. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Anokhin, A. P., Golosheykin, S., & Heath, A. C. (2008). Heritability of frontal brain function related to action monitoring. Psychophysiology, 45, 524–534.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., & Thayer, J. (2015). Heart rate variability as a transdiagnostic biomarker of psychopathology. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98, 338–350.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, L. (1983). Aversively stimulated aggression: Some parallels and differences in research with animals and humans. American Psychologist, 38, 1135.Google Scholar
Boyd, J. H., Burke, J. D., Gruenberg, E., Holzer, C. E., Rae, D. S., George, L. K., et al. (1984). Exclusion criteria of DSM-III: A study of co-occurrence of hierarchy-free syndromes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 983–989.Google Scholar
Brotman, M. A., Schmajuk, M., Rich, B. A., Dickstein, D. P., Guyer, A. E., Costello, E. J., et al. (2006). Prevalence, clinical correlates, and longitudinal course of severe mood dysregulation in children. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 991–997.Google Scholar
Burke, J. D. (2012). An affective dimension within oppositional defiant disorder symptoms among boys: Personality and psychopathology outcomes into early adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1176–1183.Google Scholar
Carlson, J. M., Cha, J., & Mujica-Parodi, L. R. (2013). Functional and structural amygdala–anterior cingulate connectivity correlates with attentional bias to masked fearful faces. Cortex, 49, 2595–2600.Google Scholar
Carter, C. S., & van Veen, V. (2007). Anterior cingulate cortex and conflict detection: An update of theory and data. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 367–379.Google Scholar
Casey, B. J., Oliveri, M. E., & Insel, T. (2014). A neurodevelopmental perspective on the research domain criteria (RDoC) framework. Biological Psychiatry, 76, 350–353.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Houts, R. M., Belsky, D. W., Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Harrington, H., Israel, S., et al. (2014). The p factor one general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders? Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 119–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiu, P. H., & Deldin, P. J. (2007). Neural evidence for enhanced error detection in major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 608–616.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2008). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on research in development and psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 27–57). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Copeland, W. E., Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Egger, H. (2013). Prevalence, comorbidity, and correlates of DSM-5 proposed disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 173–179.Google Scholar
Copeland, W. E., Brotman, M. A., & Costello, E. J. (2015). Normative irritability in youth: Developmental findings from the Great Smoky Mountains Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 635–642.Google Scholar
Copeland, W. E., Shanahan, L., Egger, H., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2014). Adult diagnostic and functional outcomes of DSM-5 disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 668.Google Scholar
Critchley, H. D., Tang, J., Glaser, D., Butterworth, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Anterior cingulate activity during error and autonomic response. NeuroImage, 27, 885–895.Google Scholar
Cummings, C. M., Caporino, N. E., & Kendall, P. C. (2014). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: 20 years after. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 816.Google Scholar
Dias, T. G. C., Iyer, S. P., Carpenter, S. D., Cary, R. P., Wilson, V. B., Mitchel, S. H., et al. (2015). Characterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 11, 155–174.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162–170.Google Scholar
Dougherty, L. R., Smith, V. C., Bufferd, S. J., Kessel, E., Carlson, G. A., & Klein, D. N. (2015). Preschool irritability predicts child psychopathology, functional impairment, and service use at age nine. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Dougherty, L. R., Smith, V. C., Bufferd, S. J., Stringaris, A., Leibenluft, E., Carlson, G. A., et al. (2013). Preschool irritability: Longitudinal associations with psychiatric disorders at age 6 and parental psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 1304–1313.Google Scholar
Egger, H. L., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Potts, E., Walter, B. K., & Angold, A. (2006). Test–retest reliability of the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 538–549.Google Scholar
Euser, A. S., Evans, B. E., Greaves-Lord, K., Huizink, A. C., & Franken, I. H. (2013). Diminished error-related brain activity as a promising endophenotype for substance use disorders: Evidence from high-risk offspring. Addiction Biology, 18, 970–984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foulds, G. A. (1976). The hierarchical nature of personal illness. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gehring, W. J., & Fencsik, D. E. (2001). Functions of the medial frontal cortex in the processing of conflict and errors. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 9430–9437.Google Scholar
Gratton, G., Coles, M. G., & Donchin, E. (1983). A new method for off-line removal of ocular artifact. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 55, 468–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hajcak, G., & Foti, D. (2008). Errors are aversive defensive motivation and the error-related negativity. Psychological Science, 19, 103–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hajcak, G., McDonald, N., & Simons, R. F. (2003). To err is autonomic: Error-related brain potentials, ANS activity, and post-error compensatory behavior. Psychophysiology, 40, 895–903.Google Scholar
Hall, J. R., Bernat, E. M., & Patrick, C. J. (2007). Externalizing psychopathology and the error-related negativity. Psychological Science, 18, 326–333.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., & Matthes, J. (2009). Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 924–936.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hink, L. K., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Cosgrove, V. E., Hewitt, J. K., Schulz-Heik, R. J., et al. (2013). Personality dimensions as common and broadband-specific features for internalizing and externalizing disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 939–957.Google Scholar
Holmes, A. J., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2008). Spatiotemporal dynamics of error processing dysfunctions in major depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 179–188.Google Scholar
Holmes, A. J., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2010). Effects of task-relevant incentives on the electrophysiological correlates of error processing in major depressive disorder. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 119–128.Google Scholar
Holroyd, C. B., & Coles, M. G. (2002). The neural basis of human error processing: Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. Psychological Review, 109, 679.Google Scholar
Inzlicht, M., Bartholow, B. D., & Hirsch, J. B. (2015). Emotional foundations of cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19, 126–132.Google Scholar
Jackson, F., Nelson, B. D., & Proudfit, G. H. (2015). In an uncertain world, errors are more aversive: Evidence from the error-related negativity. Emotion, 15, 12.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., et al. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.Google Scholar
Klein, D. N., & Riso, L. P. (1993). Psychiatric diagnoses: Problems of boundaries and co-occurrences. In Costello, C. G. (Ed.), Basic issues in psychopathology (pp. 19–66). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kotov, R., Ruggero, C. J., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Yuan, Q., & Zimmerman, M. (2011). New dimensions in the quantitative classification of mental illness. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 1003–1011.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, C. D., Dahl, R. E., Birmaher, B., Axelson, D. A., & Ryan, N. D. (2006). Increased error-related negativity (ERN) in childhood anxiety disorders: ERP and source localization. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1073–1082.Google Scholar
Lahat, A., Lamm, C., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., Henderson, H. A., & Fox, N. A. (2014). Early behavioral inhibition and increased error monitoring predict later social phobia symptoms in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 447–455.Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., Hakes, J. K., Zald, D. H., Hariri, A. R., & Rathouz, P. J. (2012). Is there a general factor of prevalent psychopathology during adulthood? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 971.Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., Keenan, K., Stepp, S. D., Loeber, R., & Hipwell, A. E. (2015). Criterion validity of the general factor of psychopathology in a prospective study of girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 415–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leadbeater, B. J., & Homel, J. (2015). Irritable and defiant sub-dimensions of ODD: Their stability and prediction of internalizing symptoms and conduct problems from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 407–421.Google Scholar
Leckman, J. F., Weissman, M. M., Merikangas, K. R., Pauls, D. L., & Prusoff, B. A. (1983). Panic disorder and major depression: Increased risk of depression, alcoholism, panic, and phobic disorders in families of depressed probands with panic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1055–1060.Google Scholar
Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., & Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic versus episodic irritability in youth: A community-based, longitudinal study of clinical and diagnostic associations. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 16, 456–466.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O. (2003). Comorbidity between and within childhood externalizing and internalizing disorders: Reflections and directions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 285–291.Google Scholar
McDermott, J. M., Perez-Edgar, K., Henderson, H. A., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2009). A history of childhood behavioral inhibition and enhanced response monitoring in adolescence are linked to clinical anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 445–448.Google Scholar
Meyer, A., Bress, J., & Proudfit, G. H. (2014). Psychometric properties of the error-related negativity in children and adolescents. Psychophysiology, 51, 602–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, A., Hajcak, G., Torpey, D. C., Kujawa, A., Kim, J., Bufferd, S., et al. (2013). Increased error-related brain activity in six-year-old children with clinical anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1257–1266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, A., Proudfit, G. H., Bufferd, S. J., Kujawa, A. J., Laptook, R. S., Torpey, D. C., et al. (2015). Self-reported and observed punitive parenting prospectively predicts increased error-related negativity in six-year-old children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 821–829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, A., Proudfit, G. H., Torpey-Newman, D. C., Kujawa, A., & Klein, D. N. (2015). Increased error-related brain activity in children predicts the onset of anxiety disorders three years later. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 266–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulraney, M., Melvin, G., & Tonge, B. (2014). Brief report: Can irritability act as a marker of psychopathology? Journal of Adolescence, 37, 419–423.Google Scholar
Nelson, C. A., & McCleery, J. P. (2008). Use of event-related potentials in the study of typical and atypical development. Journal of the American Acadamy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1252–1261.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Watkins, E. R. (2011). A heuristic for developing transdiagnostic models of psychopathology explaining multifinality and divergent trajectories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 589–609.Google Scholar
Olino, T. M., Dougherty, L. R., Bufferd, S. J., Carlson, G. A., & Klein, D. N. (2014). Testing models of psychopathology in preschool-aged children using a structured interview-based assessment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1201–1211.Google Scholar
Olvet, D. M., & Hajcak, G. (2008). The error-related negativity (ERN) and psychopathology: Toward an endophenotype. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1343–1354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pailing, P. E., Segalowitz, S. J., Dywan, J., & Davies, P. L. (2002). Error negativity and response control. Psychophysiology, 39, 198–206.Google Scholar
Potts, G. F., George, M. R. M., Martin, L. E., & Barratt, E. S. (2006). Reduced punishment sensitivity in neural systems of behavior monitoring in impulsive individuals. Neuroscience Letters, 397, 130–134.Google Scholar
Proudfit, G. H., Inzlicht, M., & Mennin, D. S. (2013). Anxiety and error monitoring: The importance of motivation and emotion. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 636.Google Scholar
Rhee, S. H., Lahey, B. B., & Waldman, I. D. (2015). Comorbidity among dimensions of childhood psychopathology: Converging evidence from behavior genetics. Child Development Perspectives, 9, 26–31.Google Scholar
Ridderinkhof, K. R., Ullsperger, M., Crone, E. A., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2004). The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control. Science, 306, 443–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riesel, A., Weinberg, A., Endrass, T., Kathmann, N., & Hajcak, G. (2012). Punishment has a lasting impact on error-related brain activity. Psychophysiology, 49, 239–247.Google Scholar
Riesel, A., Weinberg, A., Endrass, T., Meyer, A., & Hajcak, G. (2013). The ERN is the ERN is the ERN? Convergent validity of error-related brain activity across different tasks. Biological Psychology, 93, 377–385.Google Scholar
Roberson-Nay, R., Leibenluft, E., Brotman, M. A., Myers, J., Larsson, H., Lichtenstein, P., et al. (2015). Longitudinal stability of genetic and environmental influences on irritability: From childhood to young adulthood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 657–664.Google Scholar
Robins, E., & Guze, S. B. (1970). Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: Its application to schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 983–987.Google Scholar
Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1991). Comorbidity of unipolar depression: II. Comorbidity with other mental disorders in adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 214–222.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, S. J., Santesso, D. L., Murphy, T. I., Homan, D., Chantziantoniou, D. K., & Khan, S. (2010). Retest reliability of medial frontal negativities during performance monitoring. Psychophysiology, 47, 260–270.Google Scholar
Stieben, J., Lewis, M. D., Granic, I., Zelazo, P. D., Segalowitz, S., & Pepler, D. (2007). Neurophysiological mechanisms of emotion regulation for subtypes of externalizing children. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 455–480.Google Scholar
Stringaris, A., Cohen, P., Pine, D. S., & Leibenluft, E. (2009). Adult outcomes of youth irritability: A 20-year prospective community-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 1048–1054.Google Scholar
Stringaris, A., & Goodman, R. (2009). Longitudinal outcome of youth oppositionality: Irritable, headstrong, and hurtful behaviors have distinctive predictions. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 404–412.Google Scholar
Stringaris, A., Goodman, R., Ferdinando, S., Razdan, V., Muhrer, E., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2012). The Affective Reactivity Index: A concise irritability scale for clinical and research settings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1109–1117.Google Scholar
Stringaris, A., & Taylor, E. (2015). Disruptive mood: Irritability in children and adolescents. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. F., Stern, E. R., & Gehring, W. J. (2007). Neural systems for error monitoring: Recent findings and theoretical perspectives. Neuroscientist, 13, 160–172.Google Scholar
Torpey, D. C., Hajcak, G., Kim, J., Kujawa, A. J., Dyson, M. W., Olino, T. M., et al. (2013). Error-related brain activity in young children: Associations with parental anxiety and child temperamental negative emotionality. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 854–862.Google Scholar
Torpey, D. C., Hajcak, G., Kim, J., Kujawa, A., & Klein, D. N. (2012). Electrocortical and behavioral measures of response monitoring in young children during a go/no-go task. Developmental Psychobiology, 54, 139–150.Google Scholar
Van De Voorde, S., Roeyers, H., & Wiersema, J. R. (2010). Error monitoring in children with ADHD or reading disorder: An event-related potential study. Biological Psychology, 84, 176–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vilà-Balló, A., Hdez-Lafuente, P., Rostan, C., Cunillera, T., & Rodriguez-Fornells, A. (2014). Neurophysiological correlates of error monitoring and inhibitory processing in juvenile violent offenders. Biological Psychology, 102, 141–152.Google Scholar
von Borries, A. K. L., Brazil, I. A., Bulten, B. H., Buitelaar, J. K., Verkes, R. J., & De Bruijn, E. R. A. (2010). Neural correlates of error-related learning deficits in individuals with psychopathy. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1559–1568.Google Scholar
Wakschlag, L. S., Estabrook, R., Petitclerc, A., Henry, D., Burns, J. L., Perlman, S. B., et al. (2015). Clinical implications of a dimensional approach: The normal–abnormal spectrum of early irritability. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 626–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberg, A., Dieterich, R., & Riesel, A. (2015). Error-related brain activity in the age of RDoC: A review of the literature. International Journal of Psychophysiology. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A., & Hajcak, G. (2011). Longer term test-retest reliability of error-related brain activity. Psychophysiology, 48, 1420–1425.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A., Klein, D. N., & Hajcak, G. (2012). Increased error-related brain activity distinguishes generalized anxiety disorder with and without comorbid major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 885.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A., Kotov, R., & Proudfit, G. (2015). Neural indicators of error processing in generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 172–185.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A., Riesel, A., & Hajcak, G. (2012). Integrating multiple perspectives on error-related brain activity: The ERN as a neural indicator of trait defensive reactivity. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 84–100.Google Scholar
Wright, A. G., Krueger, R. F., Hobbs, M. J., Markon, K. E., Eaton, N. R., & Slade, T. (2013). The structure of psychopathology: Toward an expanded quantitative empirical model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 281–294.Google Scholar