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How does international law impact the behavior of states? This book designed for students in multiple disciplines offers a comprehensive, accessible introduction to the 'law of nations,' detailing the evolution of state practice in response to an ever-changing, diverse world. In this new edition of William Slomanson's foundational text, the new authors, Professors Slagter and Van Doorn, trace how states manage their sovereignty in myriad ways, working through treaties, international organizations, and international courts to secure their own as well as global interests. With special emphasis on five key areas-human rights, the use of force, human security and humanitarian intervention, environmental protection, and economic relations-the authors illustrate both the power and limits of international law to provide structure and predictability on a globalized planet. Real-world problem sets, annotated bibliographies, and a practical guide to studying international law make this a text that students and instructors alike will appreciate.
Fecal incontinence (FI) is defined as the involuntary loss of solid or liquid stool and has an enormous impact on quality of life. Continence depends on a number of factors including cognitive function, stool volume and stool consistency, colonic transit, rectal compliance, anal sphincter function, anorectal sensation, and anorectal reflexes. Loss of continence often results from impairment in any of these factors. Initial evaluation consists of a focused history and a physical examination looking for potential reversible and/or treatable factors. First-line treatment include dietary, behavioral, and pharmacologic management approaches in community-dwelling and long-term care settings. If first-line treatments are not effective, additional evaluation with anorectal manometry and other tests may be warranted. Surgical treatments for FI may improve symptoms and more efficacy data is needed, especially among older adults. Therapeutic options using behavioral, pharmacological, and surgical approaches can lead to symptomatic improvements or cure for FI and increased quality of life for the older patient.
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent psychiatric condition, yet many patients do not receive adequate treatment. Novel and highly scalable interventions such as internet-based cognitive-behavioral-therapy (iCBT) may help to address this treatment gap. Anhedonia, a hallmark symptom of MDD that refers to diminished interest and ability to experience pleasure, has been associated with reduced reactivity in a neural reward circuit that includes medial prefrontal and striatal brain regions. Whether iCBT can reduce anhedonia severity in MDD patients, and whether these therapeutic effects are accompanied by enhanced reward circuit reactivity has yet to be examined.
Methods
Fifty-two MDD patients were randomly assigned to either 10-week iCBT (n = 26) or monitored attention control (MAC, n = 26) programs. All patients completed pre- and post-treatment assessments of anhedonia (Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure Scale; SHAPS) and reward circuit reactivity [monetary incentive delay (MID) task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)]. Healthy control participants (n = 42) also underwent two fMRI scans while completing the MID task 10 weeks apart.
Results
Both iCBT and MAC groups exhibited a reduction in anhedonia severity post-treatment. Nevertheless, only the iCBT group exhibited enhanced nucleus accumbens (Nacc) and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) activation and functional connectivity from pre- to post-treatment in response to reward feedback. Enhanced Nacc and sgACC activations were associated with reduced anhedonia severity following iCBT treatment, with enhanced Nacc activation also mediating the reduction in anhedonia severity post-treatment.
Conclusions
These findings suggest that increased reward circuit reactivity may contribute to a reduction in anhedonia severity following iCBT treatment for depression.
Shade coffee is a well-studied cultivation strategy that creates habitat for tropical birds while also maintaining agricultural yield. Although there is a general consensus that shade coffee is more “bird-friendly” than a sun coffee monoculture, little work has investigated the effects of specific shade tree species on insectivorous bird diversity. This study involved avian foraging observations, mist-netting data, temperature loggers, and arthropod sampling to investigate bottom-up effects of two shade tree taxa - native Cordia sp. and introduced Grevillea robusta - on insectivorous bird communities in central Kenya. Results indicate that foliage-dwelling arthropod abundance, and the richness and overall abundance of foraging birds were all higher on Cordia than on Grevillea. Furthermore, multivariate analyses of the bird community indicate a significant difference in community composition between the canopies of the two tree species, though the communities of birds using the coffee understorey under these shade trees were similar. In addition, both shade trees buffered temperatures in coffee, and temperatures under Cordia were marginally cooler than under Grevillea. These results suggest that native Cordia trees on East African shade coffee farms may be better at mitigating habitat loss and attracting insectivorous birds that could promote ecosystem services. Identifying differences in prey abundance and preferences in bird foraging behaviour not only fills basic gaps in our understanding of the ecology of East African coffee farms, it also aids in developing region-specific information to optimize functional diversity, ecosystem services, and the conservation of birds in agricultural landscapes.
To describe the genomic analysis and epidemiologic response related to a slow and prolonged methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) outbreak.
Design:
Prospective observational study.
Setting:
Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).
Methods:
We conducted an epidemiologic investigation of a NICU MRSA outbreak involving serial baby and staff screening to identify opportunities for decolonization. Whole-genome sequencing was performed on MRSA isolates.
Results:
A NICU with excellent hand hygiene compliance and longstanding minimal healthcare-associated infections experienced an MRSA outbreak involving 15 babies and 6 healthcare personnel (HCP). In total, 12 cases occurred slowly over a 1-year period (mean, 30.7 days apart) followed by 3 additional cases 7 months later. Multiple progressive infection prevention interventions were implemented, including contact precautions and cohorting of MRSA-positive babies, hand hygiene observers, enhanced environmental cleaning, screening of babies and staff, and decolonization of carriers. Only decolonization of HCP found to be persistent carriers of MRSA was successful in stopping transmission and ending the outbreak. Genomic analyses identified bidirectional transmission between babies and HCP during the outbreak.
Conclusions:
In comparison to fast outbreaks, outbreaks that are “slow and sustained” may be more common to units with strong existing infection prevention practices such that a series of breaches have to align to result in a case. We identified a slow outbreak that persisted among staff and babies and was only stopped by identifying and decolonizing persistent MRSA carriage among staff. A repeated decolonization regimen was successful in allowing previously persistent carriers to safely continue work duties.
Over the last 25 years, radiowave detection of neutrino-generated signals, using cold polar ice as the neutrino target, has emerged as perhaps the most promising technique for detection of extragalactic ultra-high energy neutrinos (corresponding to neutrino energies in excess of 0.01 Joules, or 1017 electron volts). During the summer of 2021 and in tandem with the initial deployment of the Radio Neutrino Observatory in Greenland (RNO-G), we conducted radioglaciological measurements at Summit Station, Greenland to refine our understanding of the ice target. We report the result of one such measurement, the radio-frequency electric field attenuation length $L_\alpha$. We find an approximately linear dependence of $L_\alpha$ on frequency with the best fit of the average field attenuation for the upper 1500 m of ice: $\langle L_\alpha \rangle = ( ( 1154 \pm 121) - ( 0.81 \pm 0.14) \, ( \nu /{\rm MHz}) ) \,{\rm m}$ for frequencies ν ∈ [145 − 350] MHz.
Democratic cooperation is a particularly complex type of arrangement that requires attendant institutions to ensure that the problems inherent in collective action do not subvert the public good. It is perhaps due to this complexity that historians, political scientists, and others generally associate the birth of democracy with the emergence of so-called states and center it geographically in the “West,” where it then diffused to the rest of the world. We argue that the archaeological record of the American Southeast provides a case to examine the emergence of democratic institutions and to highlight the distinctive ways in which such long-lived institutions were—and continue to be—expressed by Native Americans. Our research at the Cold Springs site in northern Georgia, USA, provides important insight into the earliest documented council houses in the American Southeast. We present new radiocarbon dating of these structures along with dates for the associated early platform mounds that place their use as early as cal AD 500. This new dating makes the institution of the Muskogean council, whose active participants have always included both men and women, at least 1,500 years old, and therefore one of the most enduring and inclusive democratic institutions in world history.
We propose here a method to experimentally quantify unsteady leading-edge flow separation on aerofoils with finite thickness. The methodology relies on the computation of a leading-edge suction parameter based on measured values of the partial circulation around the leading edge and the stagnation point location. We validate the computation of the leading-edge suction parameter for both numerical and experimental data under steady and unsteady flow conditions. The leading-order approximation of the definition of the leading-edge suction parameter is proven to be sufficiently accurate for the application to thin aerofoils such as the NACA0009 without a priori knowledge of the stagnation point location. The higher-order terms including the stagnation point location are required to reliably compute the leading-edge suction parameter on thicker aerofoils such as the NACA0015. The computation of the leading-edge suction parameter from inviscid flow theory does not assume the Kutta condition to be valid at the trailing edge which allows us to compute its value for separated flows. The relation between the leading-edge suction parameter and the evolution of the shear layer height is studied in two different unsteady flow conditions, a fixed aerofoil in a fluctuating free-stream velocity and a pitching aerofoil in a steady free stream. We demonstrate here that the instantaneous value of the leading-edge suction parameter based on the partial circulation around the leading edge is unambiguously defined for a given flow field and can serve as a directly quantitative measure of the degree of unsteady flow separation at the leading edge.
Fetal and child development are shaped by early life exposures, including maternal health states, nutrition and educational and home environments. We aimed to determine if suboptimal pre-pregnancy maternal body mass index (BMI; underweight, overweight, obese) would associate with poorer cognitive outcomes in children, and whether early life nutritional, educational and home environments modify these relationships. Self-reported data were obtained from mother-infant dyads from the pan-Canadian prospective Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals cohort. Relationships between potential risk factors (pre-pregnancy maternal BMI, breastfeeding practices and Home Observation Measurement of the Environment [HOME] score) and child cognitive development at age three (Weschler’s Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition scale and its subcategories) were each evaluated using analysis of variance, multivariable regression models and moderating analyses. Amongst the 528 mother−child dyads, increasing maternal pre-pregnancy BMI was negatively associated with scores for child full-scale IQ (β [95% CI]; −2.01 [−3.43, −0.59], p = 0.006), verbal composite (−1.93 [−3.33, −0.53], p = 0.007), and information scale (−0.41 [−0.70, −0.14], p = 0.003) scores. Higher maternal education level or HOME score attenuated the negative association between maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and child cognitive outcome by 30%–41% and 7%–22%, respectively, and accounted for approximately 5%–10% greater variation in male children’s cognitive scores compared to females. Maternal education and higher quality home environment buffer the negative effect of elevated maternal pre-pregnancy BMI on child cognitive outcomes. Findings suggest that relationships between maternal, social and environmental factors must be considered to reveal pathways that shape risk for, and resiliency against, suboptimal cognitive outcomes in early life.
Bloodstream infections (BSIs) are a frequent cause of morbidity in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), due in part to the presence of central venous access devices (CVADs) required to deliver therapy.
Objective:
To determine the differential risk of bacterial BSI during neutropenia by CVAD type in pediatric patients with AML.
Methods:
We performed a secondary analysis in a cohort of 560 pediatric patients (1,828 chemotherapy courses) receiving frontline AML chemotherapy at 17 US centers. The exposure was CVAD type at course start: tunneled externalized catheter (TEC), peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC), or totally implanted catheter (TIC). The primary outcome was course-specific incident bacterial BSI; secondary outcomes included mucosal barrier injury (MBI)-BSI and non-MBI BSI. Poisson regression was used to compute adjusted rate ratios comparing BSI occurrence during neutropenia by line type, controlling for demographic, clinical, and hospital-level characteristics.
Results:
The rate of BSI did not differ by CVAD type: 11 BSIs per 1,000 neutropenic days for TECs, 13.7 for PICCs, and 10.7 for TICs. After adjustment, there was no statistically significant association between CVAD type and BSI: PICC incident rate ratio [IRR] = 1.00 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.75–1.32) and TIC IRR = 0.83 (95% CI, 0.49–1.41) compared to TEC. When MBI and non-MBI were examined separately, results were similar.
Conclusions:
In this large, multicenter cohort of pediatric AML patients, we found no difference in the rate of BSI during neutropenia by CVAD type. This may be due to a risk-profile for BSI that is unique to AML patients.
The 1930s and the onset of the Great Depression mark a generic and geographic detour that illuminates Black women writers’ radical aims. Their short stories extend and revise aesthetics associated with New Negro women’s writing, like domesticity and racial passing. Black women’s protest short fiction also disrupts the masculinist character of proletarianism by demonstrating how gender and sexuality complicate notions of work, radical politics, and desire. These writers supplant urban crisis narratives with an emphasis on everyday struggles – to find work, to secure decent housing, to raise children, often alone, and to deal with racial as well as intimate partner violence. Their emphasis on intimacy attests to the roots of Black women’s protest traditions in nineteenth-century abolitionism. The intersectional approaches of 1930s writers anticipate not only the postwar fiction of writers like Ann Petry, Gwendolyn Brooks, Lorraine Hansberry, and Alice Childress but also Black feminist writing in the latter part of the twentieth century by Toni Cade Bambara, Toni Morrison, Louise Meriwether, Gloria Naylor, and Alice Walker, among others.
Prescription opioid dispensing patterns over time were assessed for individuals with bipolar disorder (BD) vs matched controls.
Methods
Health insurance claims data from the IBM MarketScan Commercial Database and Multi-State Medicaid Database were analyzed. Individuals aged 18 to 64 with ≥1 inpatient or ≥2 outpatient claims for BD during the year preceding the analysis year (2015-2019) were included, with age- and sex-matched controls. Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics were evaluated. Opioid dispensing during each analysis year was defined as either chronic (coverage for ≥70 days in any 90-day period, or ≥6 prescriptions dispensed during analysis year) or nonchronic (≥1 prescription dispensed, not meeting chronic definition).
Results
BD patients had a higher prevalence of medical and psychiatric comorbidities, including pain diagnoses, vs controls. Among patients with BD in the Commercial database, chronic opioid dispensing decreased from 11% (controls: 3%) in 2015 to 6% (controls: 2%) in 2019, and in the Medicaid database, from 27% (controls: 12%) to 12% (controls: 5%). Among patients with BD in the Commercial database, nonchronic dispensing decreased from 26% (controls: 17%) in 2015 to 20% (controls: 12%) in 2019, and from 32% (controls: 26%) to 25% (controls: 14%) in the Medicaid database.
Conclusion
Between 2015 and 2019, there was a significant decrease in chronic and nonchronic prescription opioid dispensing among BD patients and controls across both the Commercial and Medicaid databases. Despite this finding, it is important to note that both chronic and nonchronic opioid dispensing was consistently higher for BD patients vs controls over time, across both databases.
OBJECTIVES/GOALS: To describe and evaluate an innovative university-community vaccination and food access model for minority, immigrant, and underserved individuals experiencing food insecurity during a global pandemic. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: The Purdue University Center for Health Equity and Innovation (CHEqI) partnered with the two largest food banks in the Midwest and Walgreens to offer free COVID-19 and Flu vaccinations alongside food distribution. Goals included addressing food insecurity, increasing vaccine access, and decreasing vaccine hesitancy. CHEqI acquired funding, recruited volunteers and interpreters, assessed interest and addressed vaccine hesitancy. Food bank/pantry partners distributed food and provided access to clientele and marketing assistance. Walgreens procured, administered, and documented vaccinations. The Model accommodated drive-through and indoor processes. Unidentifiable observational and self-report data were collected. Descriptive statistics were computed to characterize program outcomes. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: A total of 11 vaccination events occurred between June and October 2021 at three food bank/pantry locations. Of these 11 events, nine (82%) were drive-through and two (18%) took place indoors, eight (72%) offered COVID-19 vaccinations only, and three (27%) offered both COVID-19 and Flu vaccinations. Food was distributed to a total of 5,108 families and 416 vaccines (314 COVID, 102 Flu) were administered. Of the 396 individuals who received at least one vaccine, 20 (5%) received both a COVID and Flu vaccine. Of the 386 individuals who received at least one vaccine and reported their sex, 194 (50%) identified as female and the average age of those who received at least one vaccine was 45 years old. Of those who reported race (N = 228) or ethnicity (N = 253), 43% identified as Black or African American and 53% identified as LatinX. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Findings offer an innovative vaccination and food access model for diverse individuals experiencing food insecurity during a global pandemic. By drawing on cost effective, accessible, and culturally contextualized practices to optimize the reach and quality of vaccination services we can improve access barriers and mitigate health disparities.
To describe the association between duration of antimicrobial prophylaxis (AMP) and 30-day surgical site infection (SSI), 7-day acute kidney injury (AKI), 90-day Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), prolonged hospitalization, and 30-day reoperation after lumbar spine surgery for noninfectious indications, and to report adherence to current guidelines.
Design:
Survey.
Participants and setting:
The study cohort comprised 6,198 patients who underwent lumbar spine surgery for noninfectious indications across 137 Veterans’ Health Administration surgery centers between 2016 and 2020.
Methods:
Used univariate and multivariate logistic regression to determine the association between type and duration of AMP with 30-day SSI, 7-day AKI, 90-day CDI, prolonged hospitalization, and 30-day reoperation.
Results:
Only 1,160 participants (18.7%) received the recommended duration of AMP. On multivariate analysis, the use of multiple prophylactic antimicrobials was associated with increased odds of 90-day CDI (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 5.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1–28.2) and 30-day reoperation (aOR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2–4.4). Courses of antimicrobials ≥3 days were associated with increased odds of prolonged hospitalization (aOR,1.8; 95% CI, 1.4–2.3) and 30-day reoperation (aOR, 3.5; 95% CI, 2.2–5.7). In univariate analysis, increasing days of AMP was associated with a trend toward increasing odds of 90-day CDI (cOR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.0–1.8 per additional day; P = .056).
Conclusions:
Longer courses of AMP after lumbar spine surgery were associated with higher odds of CDI, prolonged hospitalization, and reoperation, but not with lower odds of SSI. However, adherence to the recommended duration of AMP is very low, hinting at a wide evidence-to-practice gap that needs to be addressed by spine surgeons and antimicrobial stewardship programs.
Describe nutrition and physical activity practices, nutrition self-efficacy and barriers and food programme knowledge within Family Child Care Homes (FCCH) and differences by staffing.
Design:
Baseline, cross-sectional analyses of the Happy Healthy Homes randomised trial (NCT03560050).
Setting:
FCCH in Oklahoma, USA.
Participants:
FCCH providers (n 49, 100 % women, 30·6 % Non-Hispanic Black, 2·0 % Hispanic, 4·1 % American Indian/Alaska Native, 51·0 % Non-Hispanic white, 44·2 ± 14·2 years of age. 53·1 % had additional staff) self-reported nutrition and physical activity practices and policies, nutrition self-efficacy and barriers and food programme knowledge. Differences between providers with and without additional staff were adjusted for multiple comparisons (P < 0·01).
Results:
The prevalence of meeting all nutrition and physical activity best practices ranged from 0·0–43·8 % to 4·1–16·7 %, respectively. Average nutrition and physical activity scores were 3·2 ± 0·3 and 3·0 ± 0·5 (max 4·0), respectively. Sum nutrition and physical activity scores were 137·5 ± 12·6 (max 172·0) and 48·4 ± 7·5 (max 64·0), respectively. Providers reported high nutrition self-efficacy and few barriers. The majority of providers (73·9–84·7 %) felt that they could meet food programme best practices; however, knowledge of food programme best practices was lower than anticipated (median 63–67 % accuracy). More providers with additional staff had higher self-efficacy in family-style meal service than did those who did not (P = 0·006).
Conclusions:
Providers had high self-efficacy in meeting nutrition best practices and reported few barriers. While providers were successfully meeting some individual best practices, few met all. Few differences were observed between FCCH providers with and without additional staff. FCCH providers need additional nutrition training on implementation of best practices.
Many short gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) originate from binary neutron star mergers, and there are several theories that predict the production of coherent, prompt radio signals either prior, during, or shortly following the merger, as well as persistent pulsar-like emission from the spin-down of a magnetar remnant. Here we present a low frequency (170–200 MHz) search for coherent radio emission associated with nine short GRBs detected by the Swift and/or Fermi satellites using the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) rapid-response observing mode. The MWA began observing these events within 30–60 s of their high-energy detection, enabling us to capture any dispersion delayed signals emitted by short GRBs for a typical range of redshifts. We conducted transient searches at the GRB positions on timescales of 5 s, 30 s, and 2 min, resulting in the most constraining flux density limits on any associated transient of 0.42, 0.29, and 0.084 Jy, respectively. We also searched for dispersed signals at a temporal and spectral resolution of 0.5 s and 1.28 MHz, but none were detected. However, the fluence limit of 80–100 Jy ms derived for GRB 190627A is the most stringent to date for a short GRB. Assuming the formation of a stable magnetar for this GRB, we compared the fluence and persistent emission limits to short GRB coherent emission models, placing constraints on key parameters including the radio emission efficiency of the nearly merged neutron stars (
$\epsilon_r\lesssim10^{-4}$
), the fraction of magnetic energy in the GRB jet (
$\epsilon_B\lesssim2\times10^{-4}$
), and the radio emission efficiency of the magnetar remnant (
$\epsilon_r\lesssim10^{-3}$
). Comparing the limits derived for our full GRB sample (along with those in the literature) to the same emission models, we demonstrate that our fluence limits only place weak constraints on the prompt emission predicted from the interaction between the relativistic GRB jet and the interstellar medium for a subset of magnetar parameters. However, the 30-min flux density limits were sensitive enough to theoretically detect the persistent radio emission from magnetar remnants up to a redshift of
$z\sim0.6$
. Our non-detection of this emission could imply that some GRBs in the sample were not genuinely short or did not result from a binary neutron star merger, the GRBs were at high redshifts, these mergers formed atypical magnetars, the radiation beams of the magnetar remnants were pointing away from Earth, or the majority did not form magnetars but rather collapse directly into black holes.
Video games are unparalleled as an interactive medium and can serve as potential educational tools through intelligent game design and the players’ immersion in the game world (e.g., Mayo 2009; Rassalle 2021; Rubio-Campillo 2020; Winter 2021). At the same time, video games, like any media, might also misinform (e.g., Aron 2020; Dennis 2019; Emery and Reinhard 2016). In this review, I present my impressions of the game Ancestors: A Humankind Odyssey (Panache Digital Games 2019), specifically regarding its portrayal of paleoanthropological themes. In preparing this review, I played the game in its entirety and subsequently interviewed the developers in order to clarify their intentions when designing the game (Patrice Désilets and Marc-André De Blois, personal communication 2021). Using the medium of video games, is it possible to make a “perfectly” accurate simulation of human evolution? Perhaps, but that may not matter anyway. In my view, video games, as exemplified by Ancestors, have great potential for exploring the basic components of human evolution and to reach and inspire a wider public that might otherwise learn very little about the subject matter.
The Wombat Hole Prospect is a small copper–bismuth–(tellurium) exoskarn cropping out in the Morass Creek gorge, near Benambra, in eastern Victoria, Australia. Its main primary sulfide constituent is bornite in a grossular‒vesuvianite matrix. The skarn formed in a megaclast of Lower Silurian limestone from metal-bearing fluids accompanying the high-level emplacement of the Late Silurian–Lower Devonian Silver Flat Porphyry. Though the primary bornite mineralisation has been nearly obliterated by weathering, there are small relict patches containing exsolved grains of wittichenite (Cu3BiS3) and chalcopyrite, as well as inclusions of bismuth tellurides in the tetradymite group, namely sulphotsumoite (Bi3Te2S) and hedleyite (Bi7Te3). Joséite-A (Bi4TeS2), a mineral with a formula Bi3(Te,S)4, several unnamed Cu–Bi‒Te phases and minute grains of native bismuth have also been detected. Pervasive veining by chrysocolla throughout the garnet‒vesuvianite host contains a range of unusual secondary bismuth minerals that have crystallised at various times. These include mrázekite, namibite, pucherite, schumacherite and eulytine. Other secondary minerals present include wulfenite, bismutite, azurite, malachite and a poorly-crystalline bismuth oxide containing several weight percent tellurium. Rare grains of gold (electrum) containing up to 23 wt.% Ag are also present. The assemblage of grossular–vesuvianite with minor diopside is indicative of formation in a low-${\rm X}_{{\rm C}{\rm O}_ 2}$ environment under fluid-buffered conditions. A temperature range between ~650°C and as low as ~150°C can be estimated from the exsolution of wittichenite and chalcopyrite from the bornite. The tetradymite-group inclusions formed first under low values of $f_{{\rm S}_ 2}$ /$f_{{\rm T}{\rm e}_ 2}$, with bornite crystallising as values increased. The primary Cu‒Bi‒Te mineralogy and the unusual secondary mineral assemblage makes the Wombat Hole skarn unique in southeastern Australia. The deposit provides scope for studying the mobility of elements such as Bi and Te over short distances during weathering of hypogene ore minerals.