INTRODUCTION

In the history of Indonesian Islam, especially in Java, ulama (kiai, ajengan, tuan guru, tengku, buya) played a hugely significant role in the life of the people because of their position in the “Islamic” community. For centuries they had a dominant position in the Islamic communities because they were the only source of Islamic expertise. It was only after the ideas of democracy spread, modern institutions of learning were introduced, modern organizations were established and the state formation got underway that their authority began to be challenged or — better — that they found competitors.

Theoretically speaking, when every individual is equal, knowledge (including religious knowledge) is accessible to everyone, and public affairs are handled by institutions, there will be no place for individuals to dominate authority. The reality, however, can always break the theory. Until the present time, local ulama still manage to maintain their religious authority in their “territory”, i.e., among groups of people who are loyal to them. A decision on a religious matter made by the highest decision bodies of, for example, Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama, sometimes turns out to be inapplicable in a place where one or two ulama express a different opinion on the same issue.

AUTHORITY OF ULAMA IN RURAL SOCIETY

When Islam came to the Indonesian archipelago and became the religion of the majority of its inhabitants, some old traditions survived although they got new garbs. One example is in rural Islamic societies where ulama replace the position of exalted religious leaders functioning as a “medium” between the divine world and the profane; the divine world is believed to be inaccessible to common people but has much influence on what happens in the profane. For the lay believers, the ulama possess sacred knowledge and magical power due to their proximity to God. This position was partly a result of the ulama's pivotal role in spreading Islamic teachings. For many communities — especially in villages — ulama are the only source — of what the believer should know concerning religious obligations and rules.