This study of English sailors between 1775 and 1870 follows the structure suggested by the editors. Participants were invited to address a series of specific questions and the paper considers these in turn. The extent of coverage of particular issues varies, however, according to their relevance in the British context and the source material. This paper follows on from that of Peter Earle, which covers the two previous centuries. Where possible it builds on his earlier survey, although material available for addressing the questions which were the focus of the conference is not always complementary for the two periods.

In the setting of a review of European sailors, it may be appropriate to commence by stressing the special features of the British experience. First and foremost, Britain is an island, separate from the mainland. Irrespective of the fact that in consequence Britain has a very lengthy coastline - in fact, the longest of any European nation - and, as Gordon Jackson has shrewdly observed, the unique feature of ports facing east and west, this insular character gave a special impetus to maritime activity of all kinds and ensured that the naval rather than military dimension was emphasised in strategic policy. During the period of this paper, Britain became the undisputed maritime world power in both mercantile and naval terms. In great part this was due to the wealth and technological lead associated with being the first country to industrialise. Britain was the leader in the utilisation of steam power, including the maritime dimension, where it was the most successful innovator. All these features have a bearing on the maritime labour force, not least the last mentioned, for Britain alone of all the countries under review from the mid-nineteenth century had a growing proportion of its maritime labour force employed in steam. In 1851, 7.5% of persons employed on fishing and trading vessels were to be found in steam; by 1881, the figure was 47.2%.2 While the focus in this paper is on seamen in the “age of sail,” it must be recognised that the growing proportion of seamen employed in this different setting - unique among European nations in its extent - had an impact on all who worked afloat. For many reasons, the British experience has certain special features.