Abstract

Some widespread assumptions concerning the concept of control are in need of a critical revision. First, it is increasingly recognized that self-percepts of control and efficacy may have untoward side effects; relationships between variables of control and well-being are subject to various moderating effects. Second, there is ample evidence that, despite irreversible losses in functional resources, a sense of control and efficacy does not generally wane in later life. Findings from two large-scale research projects combining cross-sectional and longitudinal observations form the basis for a theoretical model that integrates these lines of evidence. It is argued that the maintenance of control and self-esteem through adulthood involves the interplay of strategic and automatic processes. In particular, the model stresses the functional role of readjusting goals and priorities.

Introduction

The transition to old age poses serious adaptive strain on the aging self. In many physiological parameters, losses in adaptive reserves become manifest as early as middle adulthood; as age advances, such changes increasingly take their toll on health and physical fitness. The developmental convoy of persons who have accompanied the aging person through the life cycle is increasingly reduced; role losses further contribute to an increasing social marginalization of the aged person. Not least, there is the problem of narrowing future perspectives.