The discussion of positivist and phenomenological paradigms in the previous chapter argued that key inadequacies in these approaches are resolved in critical approaches. This chapter reviews critical theories of explanations and perceptions, particularly illusory perceptions. Hegel's ideas form the initial basis for critical accounts, but the first attempts to channel a critical theory into scientific form were proposed by Marx and Freud. Contemporary critical theories reject many of the axioms of these earlier theories, but some of Marx's and Freud's ideas about illusions form a kernel of concepts that influence contemporary research. The chapter begins with a summary of these formative accounts of consciousness and illusions and Fromm's synthesis of these theories. This is followed by a review of the Frankfurt School, focusing on the work of Adorno, Horkheimer, and Marcuse. The discussion then turns to Habermas's current extensions of critical theory, which revolve around his integration of linguistic models into the analysis, and the role of different human interests in human sciences. The following sections review analyses of ideology in psychological theories, and critical perspectives on two issues in social psychology: intergroup relations and the psychology of justice.

Formative concepts

The social origins of illusion

Accounts of the social basis of illusions tend to draw on Marx's categories, even while many authors apply those categories to different targets from Marx.