References

Karl L. Alexander; Doris R. Entwisle; Susan L. Dauber

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511500091.015

Abercrombie, K. L. (1999, 23 June). Programs that promote summer learning gain popularity. Education Week on the Web [Online] 18(41). Available: http://www.edweek.org

Abidin, R. R., Golladay, W. M., & Howerton, A. L. (1971). Elementary school retention: An unjustifiable, discriminatory and noxious policy. Journal of School Psychology, 9, 410–417CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L. (1998). Response to Shepard, Smith, and Marion. Psychology in the Schools, 35, 402–4043.0.CO;2-U>CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., & Cook, M. A. (1982). Curricula and coursework: A surprise ending to a familiar story. American Sociological Review, 47, 626–640CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., & Entwisle, D. R. (1996). Educational tracking during the early years: First grade placements and middle school constraints. In A. C. Kerckhoff (Ed.), Generating social stratification: Toward a new research agenda (pp. 83–113). New York: Westview Press

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Bedinger, S. D. (1994). When expectations work: Race and socioeconomic differences in school performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(4), 283–299CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (1993). First grade classroom behavior: Its short- and long-term consequences for school performance. Child Development, 64(3), 801–814CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (1994). On the success of failure: A reassessment of the effects of retention in the primary grades. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (1996). Children in motion: School transfers and elementary school performance. Journal of Educational Research, 90(1), 3–12CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., Dauber, S. L., & Kabbani, N. (2000, 18–19 October). Dropout in relation to grade retention: An accounting from the Beginning School Study. Presented at the National Invitational Conference: Can Unlike Children Learn Together? Grade Retention, Tracking, and Grouping. Alexandria, VA

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Horsey, C. (1997). From first grade forward: Early foundations of high school dropout. Sociology of Education, 70(2), 87–107CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Kabbani, N. (2002). Grade retention, social promotion and “third way” alternatives. In A. J. Reynolds, H. J. Walberg, & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Early childhood programs for a new century (pp. 185–224). Washington, D.C.: Child Welfare League of America

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Kabbani, N. (2001). The dropout process in life course perspective: Early risk factors at home and school. Teachers College Record, 103, 760–822CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Legters, N. (1998, August). On the multiple faces of first grade tracking. Presented at the American Sociological Association annual meeting. San Francisco

Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2001). Schools, achievement and inequality: A seasonal perspective. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23, 171–191CrossRef Google Scholar

American Association of School Administrators. (1998). The School Administrator, 7(55)

American Federation of Teachers. (1997). Passing on failure: District promotion policies and practices. Washington, D.C.: Author

Anderson, D. K. (1999, 6–10 August). The timing of high school dropout. Presented at the American Sociological Association annual meeting. Chicago

Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S. (1994). Family structure, residential mobility, and school dropout: A research note. Demography, 31(4), 575–584CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Balfanz, R., & Legters, N. (2001, 13 January). How many central city high schools have a severe dropout problem, where are they located, and who attends them? Initial estimates using the Common Core of Data. Presented at the The Civil Rights Project: Dropouts in America: How Severe Is the Problem? What Do We Know about Intervention and Prevention? Cambridge, MA

Baltimore Sun. (1999). The ultimate guide to Baltimore schools. Baltimore: Author

Barcai, A. (1971). Attendance, achievement and social class: The differential impact of non attendance upon school achievements in different social classes. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 38, 153–159Google Scholar PubMed

Barnett, K. P., Clarizio, H. F., & Payette, K. A. (1996). Grade retention among students with learning disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 33(4), 285–2933.0.CO;2-M>CrossRef Google Scholar

Barnett, W. S. (1995). Long-term effects of early childhood care and education on disadvantaged children's cognitive development and school success. The Future of Children, 5(3), 25–50CrossRef Google Scholar

Barr, R., & Dreeben, R. (1983). How schools work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Bauman, K. J. (1998). Schools, markets, and family in the history of African-American education. American Journal of Education, 106(4), 500–531CrossRef Google Scholar

Belsky, J., & MacKinnon, C. (1994). Transition to school: Developmental trajectories and school experiences. Early Education and Development, 5(2), 106–119CrossRef Google Scholar

Bereiter, C., & Kurland, M. (1981–1982). A constructive look at follow through results. Interchange, 12, 1–22CrossRef Google Scholar

Bianchi, S. M. (1984). Children's progress through school: A research note. Sociology of Education, 57, 184–192CrossRef Google Scholar

Blake, J. (1989). Family size and achievement. Berkeley: University of California Press

Bloom, B. B. (1964). Stability and change in human characteristics. New York: John Wiley

Blumenfeld, P. C., Pintrich, P. R., Meece, J., & Wessels, K. (1982). The formation and role of self perceptions of ability in elementary classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 82, 401–420CrossRef Google Scholar

Bomster, M. (1992, 18 September). City's dropout rate ranked 9th-worse in nation in 1990. The Baltimore Sun, C1–4Google Scholar

Borman, G. D., & D'Agostino, J. V. (2001). Title Ⅰ and student achievement: A quantitative synthesis. In G. D. Borman, S. C. Stringfield, & R. E. Slavin (Eds.), Title Ⅰ: Compensatory education at the crossroads (pp. 25–57). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Bowditch, C. (1993). Getting rid of troublemakers: High school disciplinary procedures and the production of dropouts. Social Problems, 40(4), 493–509CrossRef Google Scholar

Bowie, L. (1998, 9 February). Board looking at radical cures for city schools. The Baltimore Sun, Final ed., Sec. A, pp. 1, 4

Bowie, L. (2001, 7 June). 30,000 facing summer school. The Baltimore Sun, Sec. A, pp. 1, 6

Bowler, M. (1994, 27 November). Right of passage to the next grade may be failing Maryland students. The Baltimore Sun, Sec. A, pp. 1, 26

Brooks-Gunn, J., Guo, G., & Furstenberg, F. F. Jr. (1993). Who drops out and who continues beyond high school? A 20-year follow-up of black urban youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3(3), 271–294CrossRef Google Scholar

Byrnes, D. A. (1989). Attitudes of students, parents and educators toward repeating a grade. In L. A. Shepard & M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention (pp. 108–131). London: Falmer Press

Byrnes, D. A., & Yamamoto, K. (1996). Views on grade repetition. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 20(1), 14–20Google Scholar

Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1994). Lifelines and risks: Pathways of youth in our time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., & Neckerman, H. J. (1989). Early school dropout: Configurations and determinants. Child Development, 60, 1437–1452CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

California Achievement Test. (1979). California achievement tests: Norms tables, level 18, forms C and D. Monterey, CA: CTB/McGraw Hill

Cameron, S. V., & Heckman, J. J. (1993). The nonequivalence of high school equivalents. Journal of Labor Economics, 11(1), 1–47CrossRef Google Scholar

Card, D. (1999). The causal effect of education on earnings. In O. Ashenfelter & D. Card (Eds.), Handbook of labor economics (vol. 3A, pp. 1801–1863). New York: Elsevier ScienceCrossRef

Carrier, J. G. (1986). Sociology and special education: Differentiation and allocation in mass education. American Journal of Education, 94, 281–312CrossRef Google Scholar

Carter, L. F. (1984). The sustaining effects study of compensatory and elementary education. Educational Researcher, 13, 4–13CrossRef Google Scholar

Casey Foundation, A. E. (1997). Kids count data book: State profiles of child well-being. Baltimore: Annie E. Casey Foundation

Catalyst. (1998, September). CPS policies: Elementary school promotion policy. Available: http://www.catalyst-chicago.org

Catterall, J. S. (1987). On the social costs of dropping out. The High School Journal, 20, 19–30Google Scholar

Catterall, J. S. (1998, February). Risk and resilience in student transitions to high school. American Journal of Education, 106, 302–333CrossRef Google Scholar

Center for Policy Research in Education. (1990). Repeating grades in school: Current practice and research evidence (Tech. Rep. No. RB-04-1/90). New Brunswick, NJ: Author

Chen, X., Kaufman, P., & Frase, M. (1997). Risk and resilience: The effects on dropping out of school. Presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting. Chicago

Chicago Public Schools. (1998, 21 August ). Chicago Public Schools has successful summer school. In CPS press release [Online]. Available: http://www.cps.k12.il.us

Chicago Public Schools. (1999). Student characteristics. Available: http://www.cps.k12.il.us

Children's Defense Fund. (1992). City poverty data from 1990 census. Washington, D.C.: Author

Clinton, W. J. (1998). State of the Union Address. Washington, D.C.: Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs

Clinton, W. J. (1999). State of the Union Address. Washington, D.C.: Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs

Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

Committee on the Health and Safety Implications of Child Labor. (1998). Protecting youth at work. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press

Cooper, C. (1979). The relationship between early identification of potential learning problems using the Maryland Systematic Teaching Observation Instrument and later reading achievement in elementary school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland

Cooper, H., Charlton, K., Valentine, J. C., & Muhlenbruck, L. (2000). Making the most of summer school: A meta-analytic and narrative review. Monograph Series for the Society for Research in Child Development. Ann Arbor, MI: Society for Research in Child Development

Corman, H. (2001). The effects of state policies, individual characteristics, family characteristics, and neighborhood characteristics on grade repetition in the United States. Final report to the American Educational Research Association Washington, D.C.

Council of Great City Schools. (1994). National urban education goals: 1992–1993 indicators report. Washington, D.C.: Author

Crandall, V. C., Katkovsky, W., & Crandall, V. (1965). Children's beliefs in their own control of reinforcement in intellectual-achievement situations. Child Development, 36, 91–109Google Scholar

Crane, J. (1998). Social programs that work. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation

Cryan, J., Sheehan, R., Weichel, J., & Bandy-Hedden, I. (1992). Success outcomes of full-day kindergarten: More positive behavior and increased achievement in the years after. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7(2), 187-203CrossRef Google Scholar

Cuban, L. (1989). The ‘at-risk’ label and the problem of urban school reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 70, 780–801Google Scholar

Cuban, L. (1992). What happens to reforms that last? The case of the junior high school. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 227–251CrossRef Google Scholar

Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (1995). Does Head Start make a difference?American Economic Review, 85(3), 341–364Google Scholar

Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (1998). School quality and the longer-term effects of head start (Working paper No. 6362). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research

Darling-Hammond, L. (1998). Alternatives to grade retention. The School Administrator, 55(7), 18–23Google Scholar

Dauber, S. L., Alexander, K. L., & Entwisle, D. R. (1993). Characteristics of retainees and early precursors of retention in grade: Who is held back?Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39(3), 326–343Google Scholar

Dauber, S. L., Alexander, K. L., & Entwisle, D. R. (1996). Tracking and transitions through the middle grades: Channeling educational trajectories. Sociology of Education, 69, 290–307CrossRef Google Scholar

Dawson, P. (1998a). A primer on student grade retention: What the research says. NASP Communique, 26(8), 28–30Google Scholar

Dawson, P. (1998b). “On the success of failure”: A reassessment of the effects of retention in the primary grades. NASP Communique, 26(5), 1–5Google Scholar

Day, J., & Curry, A. (1998). Educational attainment in the United States: March 1997 (#P20–505). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau. Current Population Reports: Population Characteristics

Denton, D. (2001). Finding alternatives to failure: Can states end social promotion and reduce retention rates? Atlanta: Southern Regional Education Board

Deschenes, S., Cuban, L., & Tyack, D. (2001). Mismatch: Historical perspectives on schools and students who don't fit them. Teachers College Record, 103(4), 525–547CrossRef Google Scholar

Dougherty, K. J. (1996). Opportunity-to-learn standards: A sociological critique. Sociology of Education, Extra issue, 40–66CrossRef Google Scholar

Dreeben, R. (1968). On what is learned in school. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Dreeben, R. (1984). First-grade reading groups: Their formation and change. In P. L. Peterson, L. C. Wilkinson, & M. Hallinan (Eds.), The social context of instruction: Group organization and group process (pp. 69–84). San Diego: Academic Press

Dunn, J. (1988). Normative life events as risk factors in childhood. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Studies of psychosocial risk: The power of longitudinal data (pp. 227–244). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Dworkin, A. G., Lorence, J., Toenjes, L. A., Hill, A. N., Perez, N., & Thomas, M. (1999a). Comparisons between the TAAS and norm-references tests: Issues of criterion-related validity. Houston: Sociology of Education Research Group, University of Houston

Dworkin, A. G., Lorence, J., Toenjes, L. A., Hill, A. N., Perez, N., & Thomas, M. (1999b). Elementary school retention and social promotion in Texas: An assessment of students who failed the reading section of the TAAS. Houston: Sociology of Education Research Group, University of Houston

Dyer, P. C., & Binkney, R. (1995). Estimating cost-effectiveness and educational outcomes: Retention, remediation, special education, and early intervention. In R. L. Allington & S. A. Walmsley (Eds.), No quick fix: Rethinking literacy programs in America's elementary schools (pp. 61–77). New York: Teachers College Press

Eccles, J. S., Lord, S., & Midgley, C. (1991). What are we doing to early adolescents? The impact of educational contexts on early adolescents. American Journal of Education, 99(4), 521–542CrossRef Google Scholar

Eccles, J. S., & Midgley, C. (1989). Stage/environment fit: Developmentally appropriate classrooms for early adolescents. In R. E. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on Motivation in Education (pp. 139–186). New York: Academic Press

Eccles, J. S., & Midgley, C. (1990). Changes in academic motivation and self-perception during early adolescence. In R. Montemayor, G. R. Adams, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period? (pp. 134–155). Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., & Adler, T. (1984). Grade-related changes in the school environment: Effects on achievement motivation. In J. G. Nicholls (Ed.), The development of achievement motivation (pp. 283–331). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press

Eckland, B. K. (1964). Social class and college graduation: Some misconceptions corrected. American Journal of Sociology, 70(1), 36–50CrossRef Google Scholar

Eder, D. (1986). Organizational constraints on reading group mobility. In J. Cook-Gumperz (Ed.), The social constraints of literacy (pp. 138–155). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Education Week. (1998, January). Quality counts, '98: An Education Week Pew Charitable Trust report on education in the 50 states. Education Week, 17(17)

Educational Testing Service. (1995). Dreams deferred: High school dropouts in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, Policy Information Service

Elder, G. H., Jr. (1991). Family transitions, cycles, and social changes. In P. A. Cowan & M. Hetherington (Eds.), Family transitions (pp. 31–56). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Elder, G. H., Jr. (1998). The life course and human development. In R. M. Lerner and W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. Ⅰ. Theoretical models of human development (pp. 939–991). New York: Wiley

Ensminger, M. E., & Slusarcick, A. L. (1992, April). Paths to high school graduation or dropout: A longitudinal study of a first-grade cohort. Sociology of Education, 65(2), 95–113CrossRef Google Scholar

Entwisle, D. R. (1990). Schools and the adolescent. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 197–224). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Entwisle, D. R. (1995, Winter). The role of schools in sustaining benefits of early childhood programs. The Future of Children, 5(3), 133–144CrossRef Google Scholar

Entwisle, D. R., & Alexander, K. L. (1989). Early schooling as a “critical period” phenomenon. In K. Namboodiri & R. Corwin (Eds.), Sociology of education and socialization (pp. 27–55). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press

Entwisle, D. R., & Alexander, K. L. (1993). Entry into schools: The beginning school transition and educational stratification in the United States. In Annual Review of Sociology (Vol. 19, pp. 401–423). Palo Alto, CA: Annual ReviewsCrossRef

Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., Cadigan, D., & Pallas, A. M. (1987). Kindergarten experience: Cognitive effects or socialization?American Educational Research Journal, 24, 337–364CrossRef Google Scholar

Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (1997). Children, schools and inequality. Boulder, CO: Westview Press

Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2000a). Summer learning and home environment. In R. D. Kahlenberg (Ed.), A notion at risk: Preserving public education as an engine for social mobility (pp. 9–30). New York: Century Foundation Press

Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2000b, August). Urban teenagers: Work and dropout. Presented at the American Sociological Association annual meeting. Washington, D.C.

Entwisle, D. R., & Hayduk, L. A. (1978). Too great expectations: The academic outlook of young children. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press

Entwisle, D. R., & Hayduk, L. A. (1982). Early schooling: Cognitive and affective outcomes. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press

Epstein, J. L., & MacIver, D. J. (1990). Education in the middle grades: National trends and practices. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association

Epstein, J. L., & McPartland, J. M. (1976). The concept and measurement of the quality of school life. American Educational Research Journal, 13, 15–30CrossRef Google Scholar

Epstein, K. K. (1987, 5 April). Latest trend: Flunking kids in first grade. The Baltimore Sun, C5Google Scholar

Farkas, G. (1998). Reading one-to-one: An intensive program serving a great many students while still achieving large effects. In J. Crane (Ed.), Social programs that work (pp. 75–109). New York: Russell Sage

Farkas, G., Fischer, J., Dosher, R., & Vicknair, K. (1998). Can all children learn to read at grade-level by the end of third grade? In D. Vannoy & P. J. Dubeck (Eds.), Challenges for work and family in the twenty-first century (pp. 143–165). New York: Aldine de Gruyter

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2000). America's children: Key national indicators of well-being, 2000. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

Felner, R. D., & Adan, A. M. (1988). The school transitional environment project: An ecological intervention and evaluation. In R. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.), Fourteen ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 111–122). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological AssociationCrossRef

Felner, R. D., Ginter, M., & Primavera, J. (1982). Primary prevention during school transitions: Social support and environmental structure. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 277–290CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fine, M. (1991). Framing dropouts: Notes on the politics of an urban public high school. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press

Finlayson, H. J. (1977). Non-promotion and self-concept development. Phi Delta Kappan, 59, 205–206Google Scholar

Finn, C. E. Jr. (1987, Spring). The high school dropout puzzle. The Public Interest, 87, 3–22Google Scholar

Frede, E. C. (1995). The role of program quality in producing early childhood program benefits. Long-term Outcomes of Early Childhood Programs, 5(3), 115–132Google Scholar PubMed

Frymier, J. (1992). Growing up is risky business, and schools are not to blame. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa

Frymier, J. (1997, February/March). Characteristics of students retained in grade. The High School Journal, 80(3), 184–192Google Scholar

Gallup Organization. (2001, 24 January). Poll Releases. Available: http://www.gallup.com

Gamoran, A. (1989). Rank, performance and mobility in elementary school grouping. Sociological Quarterly, 30, 109–123CrossRef Google Scholar

Gamoran, A. (1992). Access to excellence: Assignment to honors English classes in the transition to high school. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14, 185–204CrossRef Google Scholar

Gamoran, A., & Weinstein, M. (1998, May). Differentiation and opportunity in restructured schools. American Journal of Education, 106, 385–414CrossRef Google Scholar

Gándara, P., & Fish, J. (1994). Year-round schooling as an avenue to major structural reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 16, 67–85CrossRef Google Scholar

Garnier, H. E., Stein, J. A., & Jacobs, J. K. (1997). The process of dropping out of high school: A 19-year perspective. American Educational Research Journal, 34(2), 395–419CrossRef Google Scholar

Gersten, R. (1984). Follow through revisited: Reflections on the site variability issue. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 6, 411–423CrossRef Google Scholar

Gewertz, C. (2000, 7 June). More districts add summer coursework. Education Week on the Web [Online] 19(39). Available: http://www.edweek.org

Goal 2 Work Group. (1993). Reaching the goals: Goal 2, high school completion. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education

Goethals, G. R. (1987). Social comparison theory: Psychology from the lost and found. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 261–278CrossRef Google Scholar

Goodlad, J. I., & Anderson, R. H. (1987). The nongraded elementary school. New York: Teachers College Press

Gottfredson, D. C., Fink, C. M., & Graham, N. (1994). Grade retention and problem behavior. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 761–784CrossRef Google Scholar

Gottfried, A. E. (1985). Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 631–645CrossRef Google Scholar

Grant, J., & Richardson, I. (1998). The retention/promotion checklist. Peterborough, NH: Crystal Springs Books

Grant, J., & Richardson, I. (1999). One more year. High School Magazine, 7(4), 9–13Google Scholar

Graue, M. E., & DiPerma, J. (2000). Redshirting and early retention: Who gets the gift of time and what are its outcomes?American Educational Research Journal, 37, 509–534CrossRef Google Scholar

Greene, J. P. (2000). The Texas school miracle is for real. City Journal, 10(3), 74–81Google Scholar

Griliches, Z. (1977). Estimating the returns to schooling: Some econometric problems. Econometrica, 45(1), 1–22CrossRef Google Scholar

Grissmer, D. (Ed.). (1999). Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. Vol. 21: Class size: Issues and new evidence. [Special issue]. Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research Association

Grissmer, D., & Flanagan, A. (1998). Exploring rapid achievement gains in North Carolina and Texas. Washington, D.C.: National Education Goals Panel

Grissom, J. B., & Shepard, L. A. (1989). Repeating and dropping out of school. In L. A. Shepard & M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention (pp. 34–63). London: Falmer Press

Gutierrez, R., & Slavin, R. E. (1992). Achievement effects of nongraded elementary schools: A best evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 62, 333–376CrossRef Google Scholar

Haddad, W. D. (1979). Educational and economic effects of promotion and repetition practices (Staff Working Paper No. 319). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank

Hallinan, M. T. (1992, April). The organization of students for instruction in the middle school. Sociology of Education, 65, 114–127CrossRef Google Scholar

Hallinan, M. T. (1996). Track mobility in secondary school. Social Forces, 74(3), 983–1002CrossRef Google Scholar

Hallinan, M. T., & Sørensen, A. B. (1983). The formation and stability of instructional groups. American Sociological Review, 48, 838–851CrossRef Google Scholar

Hammack, F. M. (1986). Large school system's dropout reports: An analysis of definitions, procedures, and findings. Teachers College Record, 87, 324–341Google Scholar

Haney, W. (2000, 19 August). The myth of the Texas miracle in education. Education Policy Analysis Archives [Online] 8(41). Available: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaaCrossRef Google Scholar

Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes

Harvard Education Letter. (1986). Repeating a grade: Does it help?Harvard Education Letter, 2, 1–4

Harvard Education Letter. (1992a, September–October). After tracking – what? Middle schools find new answers. Harvard Education Letter, 8, 1–5

Harvard Education Letter. (1992b, January–February). The seventh-grade slump and how to avoid it. Harvard Education Letter, 8(1), 1–4

Harvard Education Letter. (1992c, May/June). The tracking wars: Is anyone winning?Harvard Education Letter, 8, 1–4

Hauser, R. M. (1999, 7 April). What if we ended social promotion?Education Week on the Web [Online] 18(30). Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

Hauser, R. M. (2001). Should we end social promotion? Truth and consequences. In G. Orfield & M. Kornhaber (Eds.), Raising standards or raising barriers? Inequality and high stakes testing in public education (pp. 151–178). New York: Century Foundation

Hauser, R. M., Pager, D. I., & Simmons, S. J. (2000, 18–19 October). Race-ethnicity, social background, and grade retention. Presented at the National Invitational Conference: Can Unlike Children Learn Together? Grade Retention, Tracking, and Grouping. Alexandria, VA

Hauser, R. M., & Phang, H. S. (1993). Trends in High School Dropout among White, Black and Hispanic Youth, 1973–1989 (Discussion Paper No. 1007-93). Madison, WI: Institute for Research on Poverty

Hauser, R. M., Simmons, S. J., & Pager, D. I. (2001, 13 January). High school dropout, race-ethnicity, and social background from the 1970s to the 1990s. Presented at the The Civil Rights Project: Dropouts in America: How Severe Is the Problem? What Do We Know About Intervention and Prevention? Cambridge, MA

Hebbeler, K. (1985). An old and a new question on the effects of early education for children from low income families. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 7, 207–216CrossRef Google Scholar

Henry, W. A., Ⅲ. (1994). In defense of elitism. New York: Doubleday

Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York: The Free Press

Hess, R. D., & Holloway, S. D. (1984). Family and school as educational institutions. In R. D. Parke (Ed.), Review of child development research. Vol. 7: The family (pp. 179–222). Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Hetherington, E. M., Camara, K. A., & Featherman, D. L. (1983). Achievement and intellectual functioning in one-parent families. In J. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 205–284). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman

Heubert, J. P., & Hauser, R. M. (1999). High stakes: Testing for tracking, promotion, and graduation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press

Heyns, B. (1978). Summer learning and the effects of schooling. New York: Academic Press

Heyns, B. (1987). Schooling and cognitive development: Is there a season for learning?Child Development, 58, 1151–1160CrossRef Google Scholar

Hill, A. N., Lorence, J., Dworkin, A. G., Toenjes, L. A., Perez, N., Thomas, M., & Segvic, D. (1999). Educational practices applied to Texas elementary students retained in grade. Houston: Sociology of Education Research Group, University of Houston

Holmes, C. T. (1989). Grade level retention effects: A meta-analysis of research studies. In L. A. Shepard & M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention (pp. 16–33). London: Falmer Press

Holmes, C. T., & Matthews, K. (1984). The effects of nonpromotion on elementary and junior high school pupils: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 54, 225–236CrossRef Google Scholar

House, E. R. (1989). Policy implications of retention research. In L. A. Shepard & M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention (pp. 202–213). London: Falmer Press

House, E. R., Glass, G., McLean, L., & Walker, D. (1978). No simple answer: Critique of the “Follow Through” evaluation. Harvard Educational Review, 48, 128–160CrossRef Google Scholar

Husén, T. (1976). The equality-meritocracy dilemma in education. In N. F. Ashline, T. R. Pezzullo & C. I. Norris (Eds.), Education, inequality, and national policy (pp. 45–59). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books

Hymel, S., Comfort, C., Schonert-Reichl, K., & McDougall, P. (1996). Academic failure and school dropout: The influence of peers. In J. Juvonen & K. R. Wentzel (Eds.), Social motivation: Understanding children's school adjustment (pp. 313–345). Cambridge: Cambridge University PressCrossRef

Ingersoll, G. M., Scamman, J. P., & Eckerling, W. D. (1989). Geographic mobility and student achievement in an urban setting. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(2), 143–149CrossRef Google Scholar

Jackson, G. B. (1975). The research evidence on the effects of grade retention. Review of Educational Research, 45, 613–635CrossRef Google Scholar

Jencks, C. (1985). How much do high school students learn?Sociology of Education, 58, 128–153CrossRef Google Scholar

Jimerson, S. (1999). On the failure of failure: Examining the association between early grade retention and education and employment outcomes during late adolescence. Journal of School Psychology, 37(3), 243–272CrossRef Google Scholar

Jimerson, S. (2000, 18–19 October). Meta-analysis of the effects of grade retention 1990–1999: A basis for moving beyond grade retention and social promotion. Presented at the National Invitational Conference: Can Unlike Children Learn Together? Grade Retention, Tracking, and Grouping. Alexandria, VA

Jimerson, S., Carlson, E., Rotert, M., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (1997). A prospective, longitudinal study of the correlates and consequences of early grade retention. Journal of School Psychology, 35(1), 3–25CrossRef Google Scholar

Jimerson, S., Egeland, B., Sroufe, L. A., & Carlson, B. (2000). A prospective, longitudinal study of high school dropouts: Examining multiple predictors across development. Journal of School Psychology, 38(6), 525–549CrossRef Google Scholar

Karweit, N. (1989). Effective kindergarten practices for students as risk. In R. E. Slavin, N. L. Karweit, & N. A. Madden (Eds.), Effective programs for students at risk (pp. 103–142). Boston: Allyn & Bacon

Karweit, N. (1992). Retention policy. In M. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (pp. 1114–1118). New York: Macmillan

Karweit, N. L. (1999). Grade retention: Prevalence, timing, and effects (Report No. 33). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, CRESPAR

Kasarda, J. D. (1993). Inner-city concentrated poverty and neighborhood distress: 1970 to 1990. Housing Policy Debate, 4(3), 253–302CrossRef Google Scholar

Kaufman, P., Bradby, D., & Owings, J. (1992). National Education National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988: Characteristics of at-Risk Students in NELS: 88 (Contractor Report, NCES 92-042). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics

Kaufmann, R. (1982). An investigation of the relationship between early identification procedures during kindergarten and subsequent third grade reading (Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 1909A, University Microfilms No. 8226474)

Kellam, S. G. (1994). The social adaptation of children in classrooms: A measure of family childrearing effectiveness. In R. D. Parke & S. G. Kellam (Eds.), Exploring family relationships with other social contexts (pp. 147–168). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Kellam, S. G., Branch, J., Agrawal, K., & Ensminger, M. E. (1975). Mental health and going to school: The Woodlawn program of assessment, early intervention, and evaluation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Kellam, S. G., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Dolan, L. J., Brown, C. H., Laudolff, J., Edelsohn, G., & Wheeler, L. (1991). Developmental epidemiologically-based preventive trials: Baseline modeling of early target behaviors and depressive symptoms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 563–584CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kelly, K. (1999). Retention vs. social promotion: Schools search for alternatives. Harvard Education Letter, 15(1), 1–3Google Scholar

Kelly, S. P. (1988, 8 February). 46% of Baltimore 9th-graders drop out before graduation. The Evening Sun, Sect. A, pp. 1, 5

Kelly, S. P. (1989, 25 July). 15,000 city students failed despite debate over promotions. The Evening Sun, C1

Keogh, B. K. (1986). Temperament and schooling: Meaning of “goodness of fit.” In J. V. Lerner & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Temperament and social interaction during infancy and childhood (pp. 89–108). San Francisco: Jossey-BassCrossRef

King, P., & McCormick, J. (1998, 15 June). Politics of promotion. Newsweek, 131, 27Google Scholar

Klein, S. P., Hamilton, L. S., McCaffrey, D. F., & Stecher, B. M. (2000, 26 October). What do test scores in Texas tell us?Education Policy Analysis Archives [Online] 8(49). Available: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaaGoogle Scholar

Kominski, R. (1990). Estimating the national high school dropout rate. Demography, 27(2), 303–311CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kraus, P. E. (1973). Yesterday's children. New York: Wiley

Larabee, D. F. (1984). Setting the standard: Alternative policies for student promotion. Harvard Educational Review, 54, 67–87Google Scholar

Lawton, M. (1997, 11 June). Promote or retain? Pendulum for students swings back again. Education Week on the Web [Online]. Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

Lazar, I., & Darlington, R. (1982). Lasting effects of early education: A report from the Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 47(2–3), ⅸ–139CrossRef Google Scholar

Lee, V. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Schnur, E., & Liaw, F.-R. (1990). Are Head Start effects sustained? A longitudinal follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool, and other preschool programs. Child Development, 61, 495–507CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lerner, J. V., Lerner, R. M., & Zabski, S. (1985). Temperament and elementary school children's actual and rated academic performance: A test of a “goodness-of-fit” model. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26(1), 125–136CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Levin, H. M. (1972). The costs to the nation of inadequate education: Report to the Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity in the United States. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office

Lloyd, D. N. (1978). Prediction of school failure from third-grade data. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38, 1193–1200CrossRef Google Scholar

Lloyd, L. (1999). Multi-age classes and high ability students. Review of Educational Research, 69(2), 187–212CrossRef Google Scholar

Lockheed, M. E., & Verspoor, A. M. (1991). Improving primary education in developing countries. Washington, D.C.: Oxford University Press for the World Bank

Lombardi, T. P., Odell, K. A., & Novotny, D. E. (1990). Special education and students at risk: Findings from a national study. Remedial and Special Education, 12, 56–62CrossRef Google Scholar

Lorence, J., Dworkin, A. G., Toenjes, L. A., & Hill, A. N. (2002). Grade retention and social promotion in Texas 1994–1999: An assessment of academic achievement among elementary school students. In Brookings papers on education policy 2002 pp. 13–67. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press

Love, J. M., & Logue, M. E. (1992). Transitions to kindergarten in American schools: Executive summary (Final report to the Office of Policy and Planning, Contract No. LC88089001). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education

Loveless, T. (1999). The tracking wars: State reform meets school policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press

Lucas, S. R. (1999). Tracking inequality: Stratification and mobility in American high schools. New York: Teachers College Press

Madaus, G., & Clarke, M. (2001). The adverse impact of high stakes testing on minority students: Evidence from 100 years of test data. In G. Orfield & M. L. Kornhaber (Eds.), Raising standards or raising barriers? Inequality and high-stakes testing in public education (pp. 85–106). New York: Century Foundation

Mahoney, J. L., & Cairns, R. B. (1997). Do extracurricular activities protect against early school dropout?Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 241–253CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mantzicopoulos, P., & Morrison, D. (1992). Kindergarten retention: Academic and behavioral outcomes through the end of second grade. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 182–198CrossRef Google Scholar

Markey, J. P. (1988). The labor market problems of today's high school dropouts. Monthly Labor Review, 111, 36–43Google Scholar

Maryland State Department of Education. (1999). The fact book, 1998–1999. Baltimore: Author

Maryland State Department of Education. (2000). The fact book, 1999–2000. Baltimore, MD: Author

Mathews, J. (2000, 13 June). Hot debate on value of summer school: Some educators say it helps skills; others call it unproductive. Washington Post Final ed., Sec. A, p. 24

McCay, E. (2001). Moving beyond retention and social promotion. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa International

McCoy, A. R., & Reynolds, A. J. (1999). Grade retention and school performance: An extended investigation. Journal of School Psychology, 37(3), 273–298CrossRef Google Scholar

McDill, E. L., Natriello, G., & Pallas, A. M. (1986). A population at risk: Potential consequences of tougher school standards for student dropouts. American Journal of Education, 94(2), 135–181CrossRef Google Scholar

McDonald, K. B., & LaVeist, T. A. (2001). Black educational advantage in the inner city. Review of Black Political Economy, 29(1)CrossRef Google Scholar

McDonnell, L. M., McLaughlin, M. J., & Morison, P. (1997). Educating one and all: Students with disabilities and standards-based reform. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press

McLanahan, S. S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

McLaughlin, M. J. (1990, 3 August). High school dropouts: How much of a crisis? Backgrounder [Online] 781. Available: www.heritage.org/library/archives/backgrounder

McLeskey, J., & Grizzle, K. L. (1992). Grade retention rates among students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 58, 548–554CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McNeal, R. B. Jr. (1995). Extracurricular activities and high school dropout. Sociology of Education, 68, 62–81CrossRef Google Scholar

McNeil, L., & Valenzuela, A. (2001). The harmful impact of the TAAS system of testing in Texas: Beneath the accountability rhetoric. In G. Orfield & M. L. Kornhaber (Eds.), Raising standards or raising barriers? Inequality and high-stakes testing in public education (pp. 127–150). New York: Century Foundation

McPartland, J. M., Coldiron, J. R., & Braddock, J. H. (1987). School structures and classroom practices in elementary, middle and secondary schools (Report No. 14). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools

Medway, F. (1985). To promote or not to promote?Principal, 64, 22–25Google Scholar

Meisels, S. J. (1992). Doing harm by doing good: Iatrogenic effects of early childhood enrollment and promotion policies. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, 155–174CrossRef Google Scholar

Meisels, S. J., & Liaw, F.-R. (1993). Failure in grade: Do retained students catch up?Journal of Educational Research, 87(2), 69–77CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, S. M. (1976). Types of equality: Sorting, rewarding, performing. In N. F. Ashline, T. R. Pezzullo, & C. I. Norris (Eds.), Education, inequality, and national policy (pp. 15–43). Lexington, KY: Lexington Books

Mischel, W., Zeiss, R., & Zeiss, A. (1974). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 265–278CrossRef Google Scholar

Mishel, L., & Bernstein, J. (1994). The state of working America. New York: Economic Policy Institute

Morris, D. R. (1993). Patterns of aggregate grade-retention rates. American Educational Research Journal, 30, 497–514CrossRef Google Scholar

Mueller, E. (1989, March). The long-term effects on reading achievement of failing first grade. Presented at the AERA meeting. San Francisco

Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., & Boudett, K. P. (1995). Do high school dropouts benefit from obtaining a GED?Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 17(2), 133–147CrossRef Google Scholar

Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., & Tyler, J. H. (2000). Who benefits from obtaining a GED? Evidence from high school and beyond. Review of Economics and Statistics, 82(1), 23–37CrossRef Google Scholar

Murphy, J., & Hallinger, P. (1989). Equity as access to learning: Curricular and instructional treatment differences. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21, 129–149CrossRef Google Scholar

National Center for Education Statistics. (1990). A profile of the American eighth grader: NELS 88 student descriptive summary (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). A descriptive summary of 1992–1993 bachelor's degree recipients one year later (NCES 96-158). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

National Center for Education Statistics. (1998). The condition of education 1998 (NCES 98-013). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, D.C.: Department of Education

National Education Commission on Time and Learning. (1994). Prisoners of time. Washington, D.C.: Author

National Education Goals Panel. (1999). The National Education Goals report: Building a nation of learners, 1999. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

National Research Council. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high-risk settings. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press

Natriello, G. (1998, August). Failing grades for retention. The School Administrator, 55(7), 14–17Google Scholar

Natriello, G., & Pallas, A. M. (2001). The development and impact of high stakes testing. In G. Orfield & M. L. Kornhaber (Eds.), Raising standards or raising barriers? Inequality and high-stakes testing in public education (pp. 19–38). New York: Century Foundation

Nicholls, J. G. (1978). The development of the concepts of effort and ability, perception of academic attainment, and the understanding that difficult tasks require more ability. Child Development, 49, 800–814CrossRef Google Scholar

Oakes, J. (1988). Tracking in mathematics and science education: A structural contribution to unequal schooling. In L. Weis (Ed.), Class, race and gender in American education (pp. 106–125). Albany: State University of New York Press

Oakes, J. (1989/1990). Opportunities, achievement and choice: Women and minority students in science and mathematics. Review of Research in Education, 16, 153–222Google Scholar

Oakes, J., Gamoran, A., & Page, R. N. (1992). Curriculum differentiation: Opportunities, outcomes and meanings. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 570–608). New York: Macmillan

Olson, L. (1990, 16 May). Education officials reconsider policies on grade retention. Education Week on the Web [Online] May 16. Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

Pallas, A. M., Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Stluka, M. F. (1994). Ability-group effects: Instructional, social or institutional?Sociology of Education, 67, 27–46CrossRef Google Scholar

Pallas, A. M., Natriello, G., & McDill, E. L. (1987). The high costs of high standards: School reform and dropouts. Urban Education, 22, 103–114CrossRef Google Scholar

Pallas, A. M., Natriello, G., & McDill, E. L. (1989). The changing nature of the disadvantaged population: Current dimensions and future trends. Educational Researcher, 18, 16–22Google Scholar

Parsons, J. E., & Ruble, D. N. (1977). The development of achievement-related expectancies. Child Development, 48, 1075–1079CrossRef Google Scholar

Patterson Research Institute. (1999). Two decades of progress: African Americans moving forward in higher education. Fairfax, VA: United Negro College Fund

Peng, S. S. (1985). High school dropout: A national concern. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

Peterson, S. E., DeGracie, J. S., & Ayabe, C. R. (1987). A longitudinal study of the effects of retention/promotion on academic achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 27, 107–118CrossRef Google Scholar

Pianta, R. C., Tietbohl, P., & Bennett, E. (1997). Differences in social adjustment and classroom behavior between children retained in kindergarten and groups of age and grade matched peers. Early Education and Development, 8, 137–152CrossRef Google Scholar

Pierson, L. H., & Connell, J. P. (1992). Effect of grade retention on self-system processes, school engagement and academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 300–307CrossRef Google Scholar

Pinnell, G. S., Lyons, C. A., DeFord, D. E., Bryk, A. S., & Seltzer, M. (1994). Comparing instructional models for the literacy education of high-risk first graders. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(1), 9–39CrossRef Google Scholar

Portner, J. (1996, 18 September). Older students make presence felt in classes. Education Week [Online] 16. Available: http://edweek.com/ew/vol-16/03older.h16Google Scholar

Public Agenda. (2000). Survey finds little sign of backlash against academic standards or standardized tests. New York: Author

Ramey, C. T., Campbell, F. A., & Blair, C. (1998). Enhancing the life course for high-risk children: Results from the Abecedarian Project. In J. Crane (Ed.), Social programs that work (pp. 163–183). New York: Russell Sage Foundation

Reaney, L. M., West, J., & Denton, K. L. (2001, 11 April). Is time a gift? Cognitive performance of kindergarten children who repeat kindergarten or whose entry is delayed. Presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting. Seattle, WA

Reynolds, A. J. (1992). Grade retention and school adjustment: An explanatory analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14(2), 101–121CrossRef Google Scholar

Reynolds, A. J. (1994). Effects of a preschool plus follow-on intervention for children at risk. Developmental Psychology, 30, 787–804CrossRef Google Scholar

Reynolds, A. J., & Temple, J. A. (1998). Extended early childhood intervention and school achievement: Age thirteen findings from the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Child Development, 69(1), 231–246CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Reynolds, A., Temple, J., & McCoy, A. (1997, 17 September). Grade retention doesn't work. Education Week on the Web [Online] 17(3). Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

Richardson, J. G. (2000). The variable construction of educational risk. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology of education (pp. 307–323). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers

Richer, S. (1976). Reference-group theory and ability grouping: A convergence of sociological theory and educational research. Sociology of Education, 49, 65-71CrossRef Google Scholar

Riehl, C. (1999). Labeling and letting go: An organizational analysis of how high school students are discharged as dropouts. Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization, 12, 231–268Google Scholar

Roderick, M. (1993). The path to dropping out: Evidence for intervention. Westport, CT: Auburn House

Roderick, M. (1994). Grade retention and school dropout: Investigating the association. American Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 729–759CrossRef Google Scholar

Roderick, M. (1995a, December). Grade retention and school dropout: Policy debate and research questions. Research Bulletin, Phi Delta Kappa Center for Evaluation, Development, and Research [Online] 15. Available: http://www.pdkintl.org/edres/resbul15.htm

Roderick, M. (1995b). School transitions and school dropout. Advances in Educational Policy, 1, 135–185Google Scholar

Roderick, M., Bryk, A. S., Jacob, B. A., Easton, J. Q., & Allensworth, E. (1999). Ending social promotion: Results from the first two years. Chicago: Chicago Consortium on School Research

Roderick, M., & Camburn, E. (1999). Risk and recovery from course failure in the early years of high school. American Educational Research Journal, 36(2), 303–343CrossRef Google Scholar

Roemer, J. E. (2000). Equality of opportunity. In K. Arrow, S. Bowles & S. Durlauf (Eds.), Meritocracy and economic inequality (pp. 17–32). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

Rosenbaum, J. E. (1976). Making inequality: The hidden curriculum of high school tracking. New York: Wiley

Rosenbaum, J. E. (1999/2000, Winter). If tracking is bad, is detracking better?American Educator, 24–29, 47Google Scholar

Ross, S. M., Smith, L. J., Casey, J., & Slavin, R. E. (1995). Increasing the academic success of disadvantaged children: An examination of alternative early intervention programs. American Educational Research Journal, 32(4), 773–800CrossRef Google Scholar

Rothenberg, D. (1995, May). Full-day kindergarten programs. ERIC Digest. ERIC Digests [Online] ED382410. Available: www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests

Rothstein, R. (1998, November). Where is Lake Wobegon anyway? The controversy surrounding social promotion. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(3), 195–198Google Scholar

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychology Monographs: General and Applied, 80, 1–28CrossRef Google Scholar

Royce, J. M., Darlington, R. B., & Murray, H. W. (1983). Pooled analyses: Findings across studies. In The Consortium for Longitudinal Studies (Ed.), As the twig is bent: Lasting effects of preschool programs. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Ruble, D. N. (1982). The development of social-comparison processes and their role in achievement-related self-socialization. In E. T. Higgins, D. N. Ruble, & W. W. Hartup (Eds.), Social cognition and social development: A sociocultural perspective (pp. 134–157). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Rumberger, R. W. (1987). High school dropouts: A review of issues and evidence. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 101–121CrossRef Google Scholar

Rumberger, R. W. (1995). Dropping out of middle school: A multilevel analysis of students and schools. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 583–625CrossRef Google Scholar

Rumberger, R. W. (2001, 13 January). Why students drop out of school and what can be done. Presented at the The Civil Rights Project: Dropouts in America: How Severe Is the Problem? What Do We Know about Intervention and Prevention? Harvard University, Cambridge, MA

Rumberger, R. W., & Larson, K. A. (1998, November). Student mobility and the increased risk of high school dropout. American Journal of Education, 107, 1–35CrossRef Google Scholar

Rury, J. L. (1999). Historians and policy making. American Journal of Education, 107, 321–327CrossRef Google Scholar

Sahagun, L. (1999, 17 April). L.A. school district curtails plan to end social promotions. Los Angeles Times, 1Google Scholar

Schneider, B. L. (1980). Production analysis of gains in achievement. Presented at the the American Educational Research Association annual meeting. Boston

Schneider, B., Stevenson, D., & Link, J. (1994, April). Social and cultural capital: Differences between students who leave school at different periods in their school careers. Presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting. New Orleans, LA

Schrag, P. (2000, 15 March). Bush's “Texas miracle” in schools? TAAS tells. Sacramento Bee, Sec. Capitol Alert

Schweinhart, L. J., Berrueta-Clement, J., Barnett, W., Epstein, A., & Weikart, D. P. (1985). The promise of early education. Phi Delta Kappan, 66, 548-551Google Scholar

Schweinhart, L. J., & Weikart, D. P. (1985, April). Evidence that good early childhood programs work. Phi Delta Kappan, 66, 545–548Google Scholar

Schweinhart, L. J., & Weikart, D. P. (1998). High/Scope Perry Preschool Program effects at age twenty-seven. In J. Crane (Ed.), Social programs that work (pp. 148–183). New York: Russell Sage

Schweinhart, L. J., Weikart, D. P., & Larner, M. B. (1986). Consequences of three preschool curriculum models through age 15. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1, 15–45CrossRef Google Scholar

Sen, A. (2000). Merit and justice. In K. Arrow, S. Bowles, & S. Durlauf (Eds.), Meritocracy and economic inequality (pp. 5–16). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

Shepard, L. A. (2000, 18–19 October). Understanding research on the consequences of retention. Presented at the National Invitational Conference: Can Unlike Students Learn Together? Grade Retention, Tracking, and Grouping. Alexandria, VA

Shepard, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1988). Escalating academic demand in kindergarten: Counterproductive policies. The Elementary School Journal, 89(2), 135–145CrossRef Google Scholar

Shepard, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1989). Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention. London: The Falmer Press

Shepard, L. A., Smith, M. L., & Marion, S. F. (1996). Failed evidence on grade retention. Psychology in the Schools, 33(3), 251–261Google Scholar

Shepard, L. A., Smith, M. L., & Marion, S. F. (1998). “On the success of failure”: A rejoinder to Alexander. Psychology in the Schools, 35, 404–4063.0.CO;2-L>CrossRef Google Scholar

Simmons, R. G., & Blyth, D. A. (1987). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and school context. Hawthorn, NY: Aldine de Gruyter

Slaughter, D. T., & Epps, E. G. (1987). The home environment and academic achievement of black American children and youth: An overview. Journal of Negro Education, 56, 3–20CrossRef Google Scholar

Smith, M. L. (1989). Teachers' beliefs about retention. In L. A. Shepard & M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention (pp. 132–150). London: Falmer Press

Smith, M. L., & Shepard, L. A. (1987). What doesn't work: Explaining policies of retention in the early grades. Phi Delta Kappan, 66(2), 129–134Google Scholar

Smith, M. L., & Shepard, L. A. (1988). Kindergarten readiness and retention: A qualitative study of teachers' beliefs and practices. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 307–333CrossRef Google Scholar

Sørensen, A. B. (1970). Organizational differentiation of students and educational opportunity. Sociology of Education, 43, 355–376CrossRef Google Scholar

Sørensen, A. B. (1987). The organizational differentiation of students in schools as an opportunity structure. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), The social organization of schools: New conceptualizations of the learning process (pp. 103–129). New York: PlenumCrossRef

Stebbins, L. B., St. Pierre, R. G., Proper, E. C., Anderson, R. B., & Cerva, T. R. (1977). A planned variation model. Vol. Ⅳ-A. Effects of follow through models. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education

Stenvall, M. J. (2001, 23 May). Is summer school the answer or the problem?Education Week on the Web [Online] 20(37). Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

Stephens, J. M. (1956). Educational psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston

Stevenson, D. L., Schiller, K. S., & Schneider, B. (1994). Sequences of opportunities for learning. Sociology of Education, 67, 184–198CrossRef Google Scholar

Stipek, D. J. (1984). The development of achievement motivation. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education. Vol. 1. Student motivation (pp. 145–174). Orlando, FL: Academic Press

Stipek, D. J., & Ryan, R. H. (1997). Economically disadvantaged preschoolers: Ready to learn but further to go. Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 711-723CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Stipek, D. J., & Weisz, J. R. (1981). Perceived personal control and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 51, 101–137CrossRef Google Scholar

Stroup, A. L., & Robins, L. N. (1972). Elementary school predictors of high school dropout among black males. Sociology of Education, 45(2), 212–222CrossRef Google Scholar

Suhorsky, J., & Wall, R. (1978). A validation study of early identification and intervention program screening instruments: A longitudinal study. Baltimore, MD: Maryland State Department of Education (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 171 777)

Suls, J. (1993). Psychological perspectives on the self, Vol. 4. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Swanson, C. B., & Schneider, B. (1999). Students on the move: Residential and educational mobility in America's schools. Sociology of Education, 72(1), 54–67CrossRef Google Scholar

Szanton, P. L. (1986). Baltimore 2000: A choice of futures. Baltimore: Morris Goldseker Foundation

Tanner, C. K., & Galis, S. A. (1997). Student retention: Why is there a gap between the majority of research findings and school practice?Psychology in the Schools, 34(2), 107–1143.0.CO;2-N>CrossRef Google Scholar

Temple, J. A., & Reynolds, A. J. (1999). School mobility and achievement: Longitudinal findings from an urban cohort. Journal of School Psychology, 37(4), 355–377CrossRef Google Scholar

Temple, J. A., Reynolds, A. J., & Miedel, W. T. (2000). Can early intervention prevent high school dropout? Evidence from the Chicago child-parent centers. Urban Education, 35(1), 31–56CrossRef Google Scholar

Temple, J., Ou, S.-R., & Helevy, S. (2001, 31 May). Grade retention, special education, and high school dropout. Presented at the Society for Prevention Research annual meeting. Washington, D.C.

Temple, J., Reynolds, A. J., & Ou, S.-R. (2000, 18–19 October). Grade retention and school dropout: Another look at the evidence. Presented at the National Invitational Conference: Can Unlike Students Learn Together? Grade Retention, Tracking, and Grouping. Alexandria, VA

Thompson, C. L., & Kolb, E. F. (1999). Research on Retention and Social Promotion: Synthesis and Implications for Policy (NCERC Policy Brief). Chapel Hill: North Carolina Education Research Council

Toch, T. (1998, 5 October). Making the grade harder. U.S. News and World Report, 125, 59–60Google Scholar

Tomchin, E. M., & Impara, J. C. (1992). Unraveling teachers' beliefs about grade retention. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 199–223CrossRef Google Scholar

Travers, J. R. (1982). Testing in educational placement: Issues and evidence. In K. A. Heller, W. H. Holtzman, & S. Messick (Eds.), Children in special education: A strategy for equity (pp. 230–261). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press

Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward Utopia: A century of public school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Tyack, D., & Tobin, W. (1994, Fall). The grammar of schooling: Why has it been so hard to change?American Educational Research Journal, 31, 453–479CrossRef Google Scholar

UNESCO. (2000). World education report 2000. Paris: Author

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001). College enrollment and work activity of year 2000 high school graduates (News release No. USDL 01-94). Washington, D.C.: Author

U.S. Census Bureau. (1973). Characteristics of the population. Part 22. Maryland. In Census of the population: 1970, Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

U.S. Census Bureau. (1983). Census of population: 1980. Vol 1. Characteristics of the population. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

U.S. Census Bureau. (1992). Census of population and housing, 1990: 5% Public use microdata samples U.S.. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

U.S. Census Bureau. (1999). School enrollment – social and economic characteristics of students (update): October 1998 (current population reports No. P20–521). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Money income in the United States: 1999 (Current population reports No. P60–209). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office

U.S. Department of Education. (1989). Dropout rates in the United States: 1988 (NCES 89–609 by Mary J. Frase). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (1992). Experiences in child care and early childhood programs of first and second graders (NCES 92-005, by Jerry West, Elvie G. Hausken, Kathryn Chandler, & Mary Collins). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (1997). The condition of education 1997 (NCES 97388). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (1998). National education longitudinal study of 1988 (NELS: 88) base year through second follow-up: Final methodology report (Working Paper No. 98–06 by Steven J. Ingels, Leslie A. Scott, John R. Taylor, Jeffrey Owings (Project Officer), & Peggy Quinn). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (1999). Digest of education statistics, 1998 (NCES 1999–036 by Thomas D. Snyder (Production Manager), Charlene M. Hoffman (Program Analyst), & Clair M. Geddes). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (2000a). The condition of education 2000 (NCES 2000-062). Washington, D.C.: Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (2000b). Digest of education statistics, 1999 (NCES 2000–031). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (2000c). Dropout rates in the United States: 1998 (Tech. Rep. No. NCES 2000–022) (NCES 2000-022, by Phillip Kaufman, Jin Y. Kwon, & Steve Klein). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education. (2001). The condition of education 2001 (Tech. Rep. No. NCES 2001-072). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Trends in the well-being of America's children and youth: 2000. Washington, D.C.: Author

U.S. House of Representatives. (2000). 2000 Green book, 17th ed. Washington, D.C.: Author

Veenman, S. (1995). Cognitive and noncognitive effects of multigrade and multi-age classes: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65(Winter), 319–381CrossRef Google Scholar

Viadero, D. (2000, 15 March). Ending social promotion. Education Week [Online] 19(27). Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

Wagenaar, T. C. (1987). What do we know about dropping out of high school? In A. C. Kerckhoff (Ed.), Research on sociology of education and socialization (Vol. 7, pp. 161–190). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press

Wasik, B. A., & Slavin, R. E. (1993). Preventing early reading failure with one-to-one tutoring: A review of five programs. Reading Research Quarterly, 28(2), 179–200CrossRef Google Scholar

Wehlage, G. G., Rutter, R. A., Smith, G., Lesko, N., & Fernandez, R. (1989). Reducing the risk: Schools as communities of support. Philadelphia: Falmer Press

Weiss, J. A., & Gruber, J. E. (1987). The managed irrelevance of federal education statistics. In W. Alonso & P. Starr (Eds.), The politics of numbers (pp. 363–391). New York: Russell Sage Foundation

Weisz, J. R., & Cameron, A. (1985). Individual differences in the student's sense of control. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), The classroom milieu. Vol. 2. Research on motivation in education (pp. 93–139). Orlando, FL: Academic Press

Weitzman, M., Klerman, L. V., Lamb, G. A., Kane, K., Geromini, K. R., Kayne, R., Rose, L., & Alpert, J. J. (1985). Demographic and educational characteristics of inner city middle school problem absence students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(3), 378–383CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

West, J., Denton, K., & Germino-Hausken, E. (2000). America's Kindergartners: Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 (NCES 2000-070). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

Weston, W. J. (1989). Education and the American family. New York: New York University Press

White, K. A., & Johnston, R. C. (1999, September 22). Summer school: Amid successes, concerns persist. Education Week on the Web [Online] 19(3). Available: http://www.edweek.orgGoogle Scholar

White, K. R. (1985/1986). Efficacy of early intervention. Journal of Special Education, 19, 401–416CrossRef Google Scholar

White, K. R., Taylor, M. J., & Moss, V. D. (1992). Does research support claims about the benefits of involving parents in early intervention programs?Review of Educational Research, 62, 91–125CrossRef Google Scholar

Wildavsky, B. (1999, 19 July). When Johnny can't read – try tough love. U.S. News and World Report, 127, 24–25Google Scholar

Willis, S. (1991). Breaking down grade barriers: Interest in nongraded classrooms on the rise. ASCD Update, 33, 1–4Google Scholar

Wilson, M. (1990). Book review of “Flunking Grades: Research and policies on retention.”Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 12, 228–230Google Scholar

Wood, D., Halfon, N., Scarlata, D., Newacheck, P., & Nissim, S. (1993). The impact of family relocation on children's growth and development, school function, and behavior. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270, 1334–1338CrossRef Google Scholar

Woodhead, M. (1988). When psychology informs public policy: The case of early childhood intervention. American Psychologist, 43, 443–454CrossRef Google Scholar

Woodward, S. K., & Kimmey, T. M. (1997). The impact of repeating a grade: A review of research in the 90s (Tech. Rep. No. Occasional Paper No. 25). Orono, ME: Center for Research and Evaluation, University of Maine

World Bank. (2001). World development indicators 2001. Washington, D.C.: Author

Yair, G. (2000). Not just about time: Instructional practices and productive time in school. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(4), 485–512CrossRef Google Scholar

Zill, N. (1996). Family change and student achievement: What we have learned, what it means for schools. In A. Booth & J. F. Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? (pp. 139–174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

Zill, N., Loomis, L. S., & West, J. (1997). The elementary school performance and adjustment of children who enter kindergarten late or repeat kindergarten: Findings from national surveys (NCES 98-097). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. National Center for Education Statistics Statistical Analysis Report