In this book we investigate the transformation of solidarity in modern welfare states. We have learned that welfare state solidarity is still high, but also that it is changing towards more obligatory reciprocity and that it is becoming increasingly dependent upon the deservingness of recipients. In this respect, developments in public opinion are in line with developments in public policies. However, the extent of risk protection is not only dependent upon the policies of the welfare state, it is also dependent upon the risk management strategies of workers, unions, employers’ associations and companies, which we have investigated in the preceding chapters. We have learned that the risk management strategies of these actors interact with the way social risks are protected in welfare state arrangements and with the institutions of the (welfare) state. Combined with welfare state arrangements, these strategies constitute the social risk protection provided to citizens.

However, protection against social risks is also dependent upon the way in which social policies are implemented. There are two reasons for this. First, there is always a discrepancy between the formal (legal) reality of arrangements and the daily practice of administration. Dahrendorf (1988) coined this as the distinction between entitlements and provisions. Entitlements alone do not tell us how well citizens are protected against social risks. The entitlements of citizens must be delivered as well. This can be done in a restrictive manner, but also in a more generous manner. Social protection is thus the result of formal entitlements and of the way in which these entitlements are provided for. Second, and more importantly, we have to look at implementation because welfare state arrangements have become increasingly focused on investment and activation in the last ten to fifteen years. This implies that the implementation of arrangements is increasingly directed at preventing people from becoming dependent upon social security and on bringing people back into the labour market. However, this also implies that the outcome of welfare state arrangements, in terms of the protection they offer citizens, is becoming increasingly dependent upon the activities deployed by administrative organisations in implementing activating social policies.