Theoretical background

There is an impressive body of behavioural science research, beginning in the 1950s, which focuses primarily on ‘[w]hat makes a difference in the lives of children threatened by adversity or burdened by risk’ (Masten and Powell, 2003, p 4). Exposure to risks is part of everyday life and potentially contributes to increased ability to cope with threats; however, children's resilience to risks varies, and some cope with adversity better than others (Smith and Carlson, 1997). Resilience, defined as ‘positive patterns of adaptation in the context of risk or adversity’, is considered one of the most complex and provocative aspects of human development (Masten and Gewirtz, 2006, p 24). Masten and Gewirtz (2006, p 24) define the concept of ‘coping’ as ‘efforts to adapt to stress or other disturbances created by a stressor or adversity’. Interestingly, risk and protective factors can work together to enhance overall resilience (Coleman and Hagell, 2007, p 15). Very few studies focus specifically on resilience to risks in the online world, and also little work has been done on investigating whether the risks encountered offline also extend to the online world.

Contextualising online risks: from risk to harm

As children grow older and as their level of digital literacy increases, they are more exposed to all types of online risks (Livingstone et al, 2011). Psychological characteristics are related to the effect of online risks: children with more self-efficacy and more psychological difficulties, who are sensation-seeking, experience more exposure (see Table 16.1).

Exposure to risk, however, is not necessarily related to more harm. Despite their higher levels of exposure, older children, children from more affluent homes and children with high self-efficacy are frequently less bothered by sexual risks (seeing sexual images or receiving sexual messages) or offline meetings with online contacts. High sensation-seeking and a wide range of online activities also seem to increase children's resilience towards online sexual risks. Experiencing psychological difficulties may threaten the development of children’s resilience to online risks: emotionally troubled children are subject to higher exposure to online risks and are more likely to feel bothered by the experience. Although boys more often see or receive sexual images and messages, girls are more sensitive about sexual risks.

Psychological characteristics have a particularly strong impact on a child's level of perceived harm, irrespective of the type of risk.