Dellit, TH, Owens, RC, McGowan, JE Jr, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44(2):159–177.Google Scholar

Barlam, TF, Cosgrove, SE, Abbo, LM, et al. Executive summary: Implementing an antibiotic stewardship program: Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 62(10):1197–1202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jenkins, TC, Knepper, BC, Sabel, AL, et al. Decreased antibiotic utilization after implementation of a guideline for inpatient cellulitis and cutaneous abscess. Arch Intern Med 2011; 171(12):1072–1079.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lopez-Cortes, LE, Del Toro, MD, Galvez-Acebal, J, et al. Impact of an evidence-based bundle intervention in the quality-of-care management and outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 57(9):1225–1233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Takesue, Y, Ueda, T, Mikamo, H, et al. Management bundles for candidaemia: The impact of compliance on clinical outcomes. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70(2):587–593.Google Scholar

Miller, RR III, Dong, L, Nelson, NC, et al. Multicenter implementation of a severe sepsis and septic shock treatment bundle. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188(1):77–82.Google Scholar

Brumley, PE, Malani, AN, Kabara, JJ, Pisani, J, Collins, CD. Effect of an antimicrobial stewardship bundle for patients with Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2016; 71(3):836–840.Google Scholar

Hortmann, M, Heppner, HJ, Popp, S, Lad, T, Christ, M. Reduction of mortality in community-acquired pneumonia after implementing standardized care bundles in the emergency department. Eur J Emerg Med 2014; 21(6):429–435.Google Scholar

Filice, GA, Drekonja, DM, Thurn, JR, Hamann, GM, Masoud, BT, Johnson, JR. Diagnostic errors that lead to inappropriate antimicrobial use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 36(8):949–956.Google Scholar

Sinuff, T, Muscedere, J, Cook, DJ, et al. Implementation of clinical practice guidelines for ventilator-associated pneumonia: A multicenter prospective study. Crit Care Med 2013; 41(1):15–23.Google Scholar

Trautner, BW, Grigoryan, L, Petersen, NJ, et al. Effectiveness of an antimicrobial stewardship approach for urinary catheter-associated asymptomatic bacteriuria. JAMA Intern Med 2015; 175(7) 1120–1127.Google Scholar

Kelley, D, Aaronson, P, Poon, E, McCarter, YS, Bato, B, Jankowski, CA. Evaluation of an antimicrobial stewardship approach to minimize overuse of antibiotics in patients with asymptomatic bacteriuria. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014; 35(2):193–195.Google Scholar

Nicolle, LE, Bradley, S, Colgan, R, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40(5):643–654.Google Scholar

Cai, T, Nesi, G, Mazzoli, S, et al. Asymptomatic bacteriuria treatment is associated with a higher prevalence of antibiotic resistant strains in women with urinary tract infections. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 61(11):1655–1661.Google ScholarPubMed

Lee, MJ, Kim, M, Kim, NH, et al. Why is asymptomatic bacteriuria overtreated?: A tertiary care institutional survey of resident physicians. BMC Infect Dis 2015; 15:289.Google Scholar

Yin, P, Kiss, A, Leis, JA. Urinalysis orders among patients admitted to the general medicine service. JAMA Intern Med 2015; 175(10):1711–1713.Google Scholar

Hartley, S, Valley, S, Kuhn, L, et al. Inappropriate testing for urinary tract infection in hospitalized patients: An opportunity for improvement. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013; 34(11):1204–1207.Google Scholar

Cope, M, Cevallos, ME, Cadle, RM, Darouiche, RO, Musher, DM, Trautner, BW. Inappropriate treatment of catheter-associated asymptomatic bacteriuria in a tertiary care hospital. Clin Infect Dis, 2009; 48(9):1182–1188.Google Scholar

Tambyah, PA, Maki, DG. The relationship between pyuria and infection in patients with indwelling urinary catheters: A prospective study of 761 patients. Arch Intern Med, 2000; 160(5):673–677.Google Scholar

Stovall, RT, Haenal, JB, Jenkins, TC, et al. A negative urinalysis rules out catheter-associated urinary tract infection in trauma patients in the intensive care unit. J Am Coll Surg 2013; 217(1):162–166.Google Scholar

Jones, CW, Culbreath, KD, Mehrotra, A, Gilligan, PH. Reflect urine culture cancellation in the emergency department. J Emerg Med 2014; 46(1):71–76.Google Scholar

Sarg, M, Waldrop, G, Beier, M, et al. Impact of changes in urine culture ordering practices on antimicrobial utilization in intensive care units at an academic medical center. Infect Cont Hosp Epidemiol 2016; 37(4):448–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Humphries, RM, Dien, Bard J. Point-counterpoint: Reflex cultures reduce laboratory workload and improve antimicrobial stewardship in patients suspected of having urinary tract infections. J Clin Microbiol 2016; 54(2):254–258.Google Scholar

Leis, JA, Rebick, GW, Daneman, N, et al. Reducing antimicrobial therapy for asymptomatic bacteriuria among noncatheterized inpatients: A proof-of-concept study. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58(7):980–983.Google Scholar

Kwon, JH, Fausone, MK, Du, H, Robicsek, A, Peterson, LR. Impact of laboratory-reported urine culture colony counts on the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection for hospitalized patients. Am J Clin Pathol 2012; 137(5):778–784.Google Scholar

Chironda, B, Clancy, S, Powis, JE. Optimizing urine culture collection in the emergency department using frontline ownership interventions. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59(7):1038–1039.Google Scholar

National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. National nosocomial infections surveillance (NNIS) system report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am J Infect Control 2004; 32(8):470–485.Google Scholar

Cornia, PB, Amory, JK, Fraser, S, Saint, S, Lipsky, BA. Computer-based order entry decreases duration of indwelling urinary catheterization in hospitalized patients. Am J Med 2003; 114(5):404–407.Google Scholar

Hooton, TM, Bradley, SF, Cardenas, DD, et al. Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of catheter-associated urinary tract infection in adults: 2009 international clinical practice guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50(5):625–663.Google Scholar

Loeb, M, Hunt, D, O’Halloran, K, Carusone, SC, Dafoe, N, Walter, SD. Stop orders to reduce inappropriate urinary catheterization in hospitalized patients: A randomized controlled trial. J Gen Intern Med 2008; 23(6):816–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Topal, J, Conklin, S, Camp, K, Morris, V, Balcezak, T, Herbert, P. Prevention of nosocomial catheter-associated urinary tract infections through computerized feedback to physicians and a nurse-directed protocol. Am J Med Qual 2005; 20(3):121–126.Google Scholar

Hines, MC, Al-Salamah, T, Heil, EL, et al. Resistance patterns of Escherichia coli in women with uncomplicated urinary tract infection do not correlate with emergency department antibiogram. J Emerg Med 2015; 49(6):998–1003.Google Scholar

Hudepohl, NJ, Cunha, CB, Mermel, LA. Antibiotic prescribing for urinary tract infections in the emergency department based on local antibiotic resistance patterns: Implications for antimicrobial stewardship. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015:1–2.Google Scholar

Sanchez, GV, Master, RN, Karlowsky, JA, Bordon, JM. In vitro antimicrobial resistance of urinary Escherichia coli isolates among U.S. outpatients from 2000 to 2010. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56(4):2181–2183.Google Scholar

MacFadden, DR, Ridgway, JP, Robicsek, A, Elligsen, M, Daneman, N. Predictive utility of prior positive urine cultures. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59(9):1265–1271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gupta, K, Hooton, TM, Naber, KG, et al. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: A 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52(5):e103–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

CDC. National hospital discharge survey. (Accessed August 2016, at www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhds/nhds_tables.htm#number.)Google Scholar

Fridkin, S, Baggs, J, Fagan, R, et al. Vital signs: Improving antibiotic use among hospitalized patients. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014; 63(9):194–200.Google Scholar

Nussenblatt, V, Avdic, E, Berenholtz, S, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: Overdiagnosis and treatment are common in medical and surgical intensive care units. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014; 35(3):278–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Briel, M, Schuetz, P, Mueller, B, et al. Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic use vs a standard approach for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168(18):2000–2007.Google Scholar

Stolz, D, Christ-Crain, M, Bingisser, R, et al. Antibiotic treatment of exacerbations of COPD: A randomized, controlled trial comparing procalcitonin-guidance with standard therapy. Chest 2007; 131(1):9–19.Google Scholar

Stolz, D, Smyrnios, N, Eggimann, P, et al. Procalcitonin for reduced antibiotic exposure in ventilator-associated pneumonia: A randomised study. Eur Respir J 2009; 34(6):1364–1375.Google Scholar

Schuetz, P, Christ-Crain, M, Thomann, R, et al. Effect of procalcitonin-based guidelines vs standard guidelines on antibiotic use in lower respiratory tract infections: The ProHOSP randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2009; 302(10):1059–1066.Google Scholar

Schuetz, P, Briel, M, Christ-Crain, M, et al. Procalcitonin to guide initiation and duration of antibiotic treatment in acute respiratory infections: An individual patient data meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55(5):651–662.Google Scholar

Albrich, WC, Dusemund, F, Bucher, B, et al. Effectiveness and safety of procalcitonin-guided antibiotic therapy in lower respiratory tract infections in “real life”: An international, multicenter poststudy survey (ProREAL). Arch Intern Med 2012; 172(9):715–722.Google Scholar

Zagli, G, Cozzolino, M, Terreni, A, Biagioli, T, Caldini, AL, Peris, A. Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: A pilot, exploratory analysis of a new score based on procalcitonin and chest echography. Chest 2014; 146(6):1578–1585.Google Scholar

Branche, AR, Walsh, EE, Vargas, R, et al. Serum procalcitonin measurement and viral testing to guide antibiotic use for respiratory infections in hospitalized adults: A randomized controlled trial. J Infect Dis 2015; 212(11):1692–1700.Google Scholar

Kalil, AC, Metersky, ML, Klompas, M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 63(5):e61–e111.Google Scholar

Mandell, LA, Wunderink, RG, Anzueto, A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society Consensus Guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44 Suppl 2:S27–72.Google Scholar

American Thoracic Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171(4):388–416.Google Scholar

Kollef, MH, Shorr, A, Tabak, YP, Gupta, V, Liu, LZ, Johannes, RS. Epidemiology and outcomes of health-care-associated pneumonia: Results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia. Chest 2005; 128(6):3854–3862.Google Scholar

Gross, AE, Van Schooneveld, TC, Olsen, KM, et al. Epidemiology and predictors of multidrug-resistant community-acquired and health care-associated pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58(9):5262–5268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chalmers, JD, Taylor, JK, Singanayagam, A, et al. Epidemiology, antibiotic therapy, and clinical outcomes in health care-associated pneumonia: A UK cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53(2):107–113.Google Scholar

Chalmers, JD, Rother, C, Salih, W, Ewig, S. Healthcare-associated pneumonia does not accurately identify potentially resistant pathogens: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58(3):330–339.Google Scholar

Jones, BE, Jones, MM, Huttner, B, et al. Trends in antibiotic use and nosocomial pathogens in hospitalized veterans with pneumonia at 128 medical centers, 2006–2010. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 61(9):1403–1410.Google Scholar

Jenkins, TC, Stella, SA, Cervantes, L, et al. Targets for antibiotic and healthcare resource stewardship in inpatient community-acquired pneumonia: A comparison of management practices with national guideline recommendations. Infection 2013; 41(1):135–144.Google Scholar

Musher, DM, Montoya, R, Wanahita, A. Diagnostic value of microscopic examination of gram-stained sputum and sputum cultures in patients with bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39(2):165–169.Google Scholar

Sorde, R, Falco, V, Lowak, M, et al. Current and potential usefulness of pneumococcal urinary antigen detection in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia to guide antimicrobial therapy. Arch Intern Med 2011; 171(2):166–172.Google Scholar

Dangerfield, B, Chung, A, Webb, B, Seville, MT. Predictive value of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nasal swab PCR assay for MRSA pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58(2):859–864.Google Scholar

Sarikonda, KV, Micek, ST, Doherty, JA, Reichley, RM, Warren, D, Kollef, MH. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization is a poor predictor of intensive care unit-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections requiring antibiotic treatment. Crit Care Med 2010; 38(10):1991–1995.Google Scholar

Rello, J, Vidaur, L, Sandiumenge, A, et al. De-escalation therapy in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2004; 32(11):2183–2190.Google Scholar

Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A randomized trial of diagnostic techniques for ventilator-associated pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(25):2619–2630.Google Scholar

Raman, K, Nailor, MD, Nicolau, DP, Aslanzadeh, J, Nadeau, M, Kuti, JL. Early antibiotic discontinuation in patients with clinically suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia and negative quantitative bronchoscopy cultures. Crit Care Med 2013; 41(7):1656–1663.Google Scholar

De Bus, L, Saerens, L, Gadeyne, B, et al. Development of antibiotic treatment algorithms based on local ecology and respiratory surveillance cultures to restrict the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobial drugs in the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the intensive care unit: A retrospective analysis. Crit Care 2014; 18(4):R152.Google Scholar

Brusselaers, N, Labeau, S, Vogelaers, D, Blot, S. Value of lower respiratory tract surveillance cultures to predict bacterial pathogens in ventilator-associated pneumonia: Systematic review and diagnostic test accuracy meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2013; 39(3):365–375.Google Scholar

Luna, CM, Sarquis, S, Niederman, MS, et al. Is a strategy based on routine endotracheal cultures the best way to prescribe antibiotics in ventilator-associated pneumonia? Chest 2013; 144(1):63–71.Google Scholar

Cremers, AJ, Sprong, T, Schouten, JA, et al. Effect of antibiotic streamlining on patient outcome in pneumococcal bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69(8): 2258–2264.Google Scholar

Garnacho-Montero, J, Gutierrez-Pizarraya, A, Escoresca-Ortega, A, et al. De-escalation of empirical therapy is associated with lower mortality in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med 2014; 40(1):32–40.Google Scholar

Rimawi, RH, Mazer, MA, Siraj, DS, Gooch, M, Cook, PP. Impact of regular collaboration between infectious diseases and critical care practitioners on antimicrobial utilization and patient outcome. Crit Care Med 2013; 41(9):2099–2107.Google Scholar

Evans, RS, Pestotnik, SL, Classen, DC, et al. A computer-assisted management program for antibiotics and other antiinfective agents. N Engl J Med 1998; 338(4):232–238.Google Scholar

Paul, M, Andreassen, S, Tacconelli, E, et al. Improving empirical antibiotic treatment using TREAT, a computerized decision support system: Cluster randomized trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 58(6):1238–1245.Google Scholar

McCabe, C, Kirchner, C, Zhang, H, Daley, J, Fisman, DN. Guideline-concordant therapy and reduced mortality and length of stay in adults with community-acquired pneumonia: Playing by the rules. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169(16):1525–1531.Google Scholar

Grenier, C, Pepin, J, Nault, V, et al. Impact of guideline-consistent therapy on outcome of patients with healthcare-associated and community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66(7):1617–1624.Google Scholar

Ostrowsky, B, Sharma, S, DeFino, M, et al. Antimicrobial stewardship and automated pharmacy technology improve antibiotic appropriateness for community-acquired pneumonia. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013; 34(6):566–572.Google Scholar

Marrie, TJ, Lau, CY, Wheeler, SL, Wong, CJ, Vandervoort, MK, Feagan, BG. A controlled trial of a critical pathway for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. CAPITAL study investigators: Community-acquired pneumonia intervention trial assessing levofloxacin. JAMA 2000; 283(6):749–755.Google Scholar

Newman, RE, Hedican, EB, Herigon, JC, Williams, DD, Williams, AR, Newland, JG. Impact of a guideline on management of children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatrics 2012; 129(3):e597–604.Google Scholar

Smith, MJ, Kong, M, Cambon, A, Woods, CR. Effectiveness of antimicrobial guidelines for community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatrics 2012; 129(5):e1326–1333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Weireter, LJ Jr, Collins, JN, Britt, RC, Reed, SF, Novosel, TJ, Britt, LD. Impact of a monitored program of care on incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: Results of a longterm performance-improvement project. J Am Coll Surg 2009; 208(5):700–704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fisman, DN, Abrutyn, E, Spaude, KA, Kim, A, Kirchner, C, Daley, J. Prior pneumococcal vaccination is associated with reduced death, complications, and length of stay among hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42(8):1093–1001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Edelsberg, J, Taneja, C, Zervos, M, et al. Trends in US hospital admissions for skin and soft tissue infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15(9):1516–1518.Google Scholar

Jenkins, TC, Sabel, AL, Sarcone, EE, Price, CS, Mehler, PS, Burman, WJ. Skin and soft-tissue infections requiring hospitalization at an academic medical center: Opportunities for antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51(8):895–903.Google Scholar

Bruun, T, Oppegaard, O, Kittang, BR, Mylvaganam, H, Langeland, N, Skrede, S. Etiology of cellulitis and clinical prediction of streptococcal disease: A prospective study. Open Forum Infect Dis 2015; 3(1):ofv181.Google Scholar

Jeng, A, Beheshti, M, Li, J, Nathan, R. The role of beta-hemolytic streptococci in causing diffuse, nonculturable cellulitis: A prospective investigation. Medicine (Baltimore) 2010; 89(4):217–226.Google Scholar

Moran, GJ, Krishnadasan, A, Gorwitz, RJ, et al. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(7):666–674.Google Scholar

Stevens, DL, Bisno, AL, Chambers, HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59(2):e10–52.Google Scholar

Perl, B, Gottehrer, NP, Raveh, D, Schlesinger, Y, Rudensky, B, Yinnon, AM. Cost-effectiveness of blood cultures for adult patients with cellulitis. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29(6):1483–1488.Google Scholar

Blankenship, RB, Baker, T. Imaging modalities in wounds and superficial skin infections. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2007; 25(1):223–234.Google Scholar

Mueller, K, McCammon, C, Skrupky, L, Fuller, BM. Vancomycin use in patients discharged from the emergency department: A retrospective observational cohort study. J Emerg Med 2015; 49(1):50–57.Google Scholar

May, LS, Rothman, RE, Miller, LG, et al. A randomized clinical trial comparing use of rapid molecular testing for Staphylococcus aureus for patients with cutaneous abscesses in the emergency department with standard of care. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 36(12):1423–1430.Google Scholar

Hayes, BD, Zaharna, L, Winters, ME, Feemster, AA, Browne, BJ, Hirshon, JM. To-go medications for decreasing ED return visits. Am J Emerg Med 2012; 30(9):2011–2014.Google Scholar

Eells, SJ, Nguyen, M, Jung, J, Macias-Gil, R, May, L, Miller, LG. Relationship between adherence to oral antibiotics and postdischarge clinical outcomes among patients hospitalized with Staphylococcus aureus skin infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60(5):2941–2948.Google Scholar

Kalil, AC, Van Schooneveld, TC, Fey, PD, Rupp, ME. Association between vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration and mortality among patients with Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2014; 312(15):1552–1564.Google Scholar

Liu, C, Bayer, A, Cosgrove, SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52(3):e18–55.Google Scholar

Bai, AD, Showler, A, Burry, L, et al. Impact of infectious disease consultation on quality of care, mortality, and length of stay in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: Results from a large multicenter cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60(10):1451–61.Google Scholar

Jenkins, TC, Price, CS, Sabel, AL, Mehler, PS, Burman, WJ. Impact of routine infectious diseases service consultation on the evaluation, management, and outcomes of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46(7):1000–1008.Google Scholar

Robinson, JO, Pozzi-Langhi, S, Phillips, M, et al. Formal infectious diseases consultation is associated with decreased mortality in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 2012; 31(9):2421–2428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nguyen, CT, Gandhi, T, Chenoweth, C, et al. Impact of an antimicrobial stewardship-led intervention for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: A quasi-experimental study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70(12):3390–3396.Google ScholarPubMed

Forsblom, E, Ruotsalainen, E, Ollgren, J, Jarvinen, A. Telephone consultation cannot replace bedside infectious disease consultation in the management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56(4):527–535.Google Scholar

Kullar, R, Davis, SL, Kaye, KS, Levine, DP, Pogue, JM, Rybak, MJ. Implementation of an antimicrobial stewardship pathway with daptomycin for optimal treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Pharmacotherapy 2013; 33(1):3–10.Google Scholar

Micek, ST, Welch, EC, Khan, J, et al. Resistance to empiric antimicrobial treatment predicts outcome in severe sepsis associated with gram-negative bacteremia. J Hosp Med 2011; 6(7):405–410.Google Scholar

Pogue, JM, Mynatt, RP, Marchaim, D, et al. Automated alerts coupled with antimicrobial stewardship intervention lead to decreases in length of stay in patients with gram-negative bacteremia. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014; 35(2):132–138.Google Scholar

Arena, F, Scolletta, S, Marchetti, L, et al. Impact of a clinical microbiology-intensive care consulting program in a cardiothoracic intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 2015; 43(9):1018–1021.Google Scholar

Pardo, J, Klinker, KP, Borgert, SJ, Trikha, G, Rand, KH, Ramphal, R. Time to positivity of blood cultures supports antibiotic de-escalation at 48 hours. Ann Pharmacother 2014; 48(1):33–40.Google Scholar

Scheetz, MH, Bolon, MK, Postelnick, M, Noskin, GA, Lee, TA. Cost-effectiveness analysis of an antimicrobial stewardship team on bloodstream infections: A probabilistic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 63(4):816–825.Google Scholar

Pappas, PG, Kauffman, CA, Andes, D, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48(5):503–535.Google Scholar

Antworth, A, Collins, CD, Kunapuli, A, et al. Impact of an antimicrobial stewardship program comprehensive care bundle on management of candidemia. Pharmacotherapy 2013; 33(2):137–143.Google Scholar

Reed, EE, West, JE, Keating, EA, et al. Improving the management of candidemia through antimicrobial stewardship interventions. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 78(2):157–161.Google Scholar

Mondain, V, Lieutier, F, Dumas, S, et al. An antibiotic stewardship program in a french teaching hospital. Med Mal Infect 2013; 43(1):17–21.Google Scholar

Lessa, FC, Mu, Y, Bamberg, WM, et al. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(9):825–834.Google Scholar

CDC. Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2013. (Accessed August 2016, at www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/threat-report-2013/.)Google Scholar

Slimings, C, Riley, TV. Antibiotics and hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: Update of systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69(4):881–891.Google Scholar

Deshpande, A, Pasupuleti, V, Thota, P, et al. Community-associated Clostridium difficile infection and antibiotics: A meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68(9):1951–1961.Google Scholar

Shaughnessy, MK, Amundson, WH, Kuskowski, MA, DeCarolis, DD, Johnson, JR, Drekonja, DM. Unnecessary antimicrobial use in patients with current or recent Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013; 34(2):109–116.Google Scholar

Valiquette, L, Cossette, B, Garant, MP, Diab, H, Pepin, J. Impact of a reduction in the use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of Clostridium difficile-associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45 Suppl 2:S112–121.Google Scholar

Hernandez-Santiago, V, Marwick, CA, Patton, A, Davey, PG, Donnan, PT, Guthrie, B. Time series analysis of the impact of an intervention in Tayside, Scotland to reduce primary care broad-spectrum antimicrobial use. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70(8): 2397–2404.Google Scholar

Quarterly surveillance report on the surveillance of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in Scotland. (Accessed October 2017, at www.hps.scot.nhs.uk/haiic/sshaip/publicationsdetail.aspx?id=50174.)Google Scholar

Stevens, V, Dumyati, G, Fine, LS, Fisher, SG, van Wijngaarden, E. Cumulative antibiotic exposures over time and the risk of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53(1):42–48.Google Scholar

Chitnis, AS, Holzbauer, SM, Belflower, RM, et al. Epidemiology of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection, 2009 through 2011. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173(14):1359–1367.Google Scholar

McDonald, EG, Milligan, J, Frenette, C, Lee, TC. Continuous proton pump inhibitor therapy and the associated risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA Intern Med 2015; 175(5):784–791.Google Scholar

Kwok, CS, Arthur, AK, Anibueze, CI, Singh, S, Cavallazzi, R, Loke, YK. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection with acid suppressing drugs and antibiotics: Meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107(7):1011–1019.Google Scholar

Mullane, KM, Miller, MA, Weiss, K, et al. Efficacy of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin as therapy for Clostridium difficile infection in individuals taking concomitant antibiotics for other concurrent infections. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53(5):440–447.Google Scholar

Harpe, SE, Inocencio, TJ, Pakyz, AL, Oinonen, MJ, Polk, RE. Characterization of continued antibacterial therapy after diagnosis of hospital-onset Clostridium difficile infection: Implications for antimicrobial stewardship. Pharmacotherapy 2012; 32(8):744–754.Google Scholar

Dubberke, ER, Han, Z, Bobo, L, et al. Impact of clinical symptoms on interpretation of diagnostic assays for Clostridium difficile infections. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49(8):2887–2893.Google Scholar

Buckel, WR, Avdic, E, Carroll, KC, Gunaseelan, V, Hadhazy, E, Cosgrove, SE. Gut check: Clostridium difficile testing and treatment in the molecular testing era. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 36(2):217–221.Google Scholar

Davies, KA, Longshaw, CM, Davis, GL, et al. Underdiagnosis of Clostridium difficile across Europe: The European, multicentre, prospective, biannual, point-prevalence study of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalised patients with diarrhoea (EUCLID). Lancet Infect Dis 2014; 14(12): 1208–1219.Google Scholar

Planche, TD, Davies, KA, Coen, PG, et al. Differences in outcome according to Clostridium difficile testing method: A prospective multicentre diagnostic validation study of C. difficile infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13(11):936–945.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dionne, LL, Raymond, F, Corbeil, J, Longtin, J, Gervais, P, Longtin, Y. Correlation between Clostridium difficile bacterial load, commercial real-time PCR cycle thresholds, and results of diagnostic tests based on enzyme immunoassay and cell culture cytotoxicity assay. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51(11):3624–3630.Google Scholar

Zar, FA, Bakkanagari, SR, Moorthi, KM, Davis, MB. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45(3):302–307.Google Scholar

Drekonja, DM, Butler, M, MacDonald, R, et al. Comparative effectiveness of Clostridium difficile treatments: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2011; 155(12):839–847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brown, AT, Seifert, CF. Effect of treatment variation on outcomes in patients with Clostridium difficile. Am J Med 2014; 127(9):865–870.Google Scholar

Curtin, BF, Zarbalian, Y, Flasar, MH, von Rosenvinge, E. Clostridium difficile-associated disease: Adherence with current guidelines at a tertiary medical center. World J Gastroenterol 2013; 19(46):8647–8651.Google Scholar

American Society of Microbiology. A practical guidance document for the laboratory detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile. 2010. (Accessed August 2016, at www.asm.org/images/pdf/Clinical/clostridiumdifficile9–21.pdf.)Google Scholar

Jardin, CG, Palmer, HR, Shah, DN, et al. Assessment of treatment patterns and patient outcomes before vs after implementation of a severity-based Clostridium difficile infection treatment policy. J Hosp Infect 2013; 85(1):28–32.Google Scholar

Jury, LA, Tomas, M, Kundrapu, S, Sitzlar, B, Donskey, CJ. A Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) stewardship initiative improves adherence to practice guidelines for management of CDI. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013; 34(11):1222–1224.Google Scholar