Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-9q27g Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-17T07:37:11.889Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

18 - Third Language Acquisition in the Classroom

from Part IV - L3/Ln in Action

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 July 2023

By
Tanja Angelovska  and
Angela Hahn
Edited by
Jennifer Cabrelli ,
Adel Chaouch-Orozco ,
Jorge González Alonso ,
Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares ,
Eloi Puig-Mayenco  and
Jason Rothman
Jennifer Cabrelli
Affiliation:
University of Illinois, Chicago
Adel Chaouch-Orozco
Affiliation:
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Jorge González Alonso
Affiliation:
Universidad Nebrija, Spain and UiT, Arctic University of Norway
Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
Eloi Puig-Mayenco
Affiliation:
King's College London
Jason Rothman
Affiliation:
UiT, Arctic University of Norway and Universidad Nebrija, Spain
Get access

Summary

Teaching in multilingual classrooms requires careful consideration of the type of learners, their background languages, acquisitional paths and current usage patterns in those languages. Morphosyntactic features causing errors for some learners can be assets for others at the same time.

We begin by illustrating several different scenarios present with heterogeneous learners, as well as influential factors associated with the acquisition and teaching of multiple languages. Next, we focus on the existing models of morphosyntactic transfer in third language acquisition to be able to discuss how these can be applied to actual teaching in the third language classroom. Then, we discuss the role of contrastive analysis and review classroom-based and classroom-relevant implications for instructed third language acquisition. In conclusion, we outline corresponding teaching- and research-related calls for action and implications for language teaching in multilingual classrooms with the main goal of bridging the gap between these current fields.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Third Language Acquisition , pp. 466 - 491
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alisaari, J., Heikkola, L. M., Commins, N., & Acquah, E. O. (2019). Monolingual Ideologies Confronting Multilingual Realities: Finnish Teachers’ Beliefs about Linguistic Diversity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 80(1), 48–58.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. A., Hawrylewicz, K., & Grundy, J. G. (2020). Does Bilingualism Protect Against Dementia? A Meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 27(5), 952–655.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T. (2017a). (When) Do L3 English Learners Transfer from L2 German? Evidence from Spoken and Written Data by L1 Russian Speakers. In Angelovska, T. and Hahn, A. (Eds.), L3 Syntactic Transfer: Models, New Developments and Implications (pp. 195–222). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T. (2017b). Beyond Instructed L2 Grammar Acquisition: Theoretical Insights and Pedagogical Considerations about the Role of Prior Language Knowledge. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 397–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angelovska., T. (2018). Cross-Linguistic Awareness of Adult L3 Learners of English: A Focus on Metalinguistic Reflections and Proficiency. Language Awareness, 27(1–2), 135–152.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T. (2019). Instructed L3 Acquisition of English. In Liontas, J. I. (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. Hoboken: Wiley.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T. (2020). From L3 Acquisition to Teaching English. In Liontas, J. I. (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. Hoboken: Wiley.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T. (2021). “When a Psycholinguist Enters the Multilingual Classroom”: Bridging the Gap Between Psycholinguistics and Pronunciation Teaching. In Kirkova-Naskova, A., Henderson, A., & Fouz-González, J. (Eds.), English Pronunciation Instruction: Research-Based Insights. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T. (2022). The Multilingual Language Classroom: Applying Linguistically Diverse Approaches for Handling Prior Languages in Teaching English as a Third Language. In Krulatz, A., Neokleous, G., & Dahl, A. (Eds.), Educational Implications of Classroom-Based Research on Teaching Foreign Languages in Multilingual Settings. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T., & Hahn, A. (2014). Raising Language Awareness for Learning and Teaching L3 Grammar. In Benati, A., Laval, C., & Arche, M. (Eds.), The Drammar Dimension in Instructed Second Language Learning (pp. 185–207). London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T., & Hahn, A. (2016). English in Multilingual Individuals, Societies, and Schools. In Ehland, C., Mindt, I., & Tönnies, M. (Eds.), Proceedings Anglistentag 2015 Paderborn (pp. 245–253). Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier (WVT).Google Scholar
Angelovska, T., & Hahn, A. (Eds.) (2017). L3 Syntactic Transfer: Models, New Developments and Implications. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angelovska, T., & Schaipp, K. (2020). Heterogeneity in TEFL: A Focus on Teachers’ Competencies for and in the Multilingual Classroom. In Liontas, J. I. (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. Hoboken: Wiley.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T., Roehm, D., & Weinmüller, S. (2020a). Uncovering Transfer Effects of Dominance and Proficiency in L3 English Acquisition Using the Visual Moving Window Paradigm and Grammaticality Judgments. Applied Linguistics Review, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2019-0075.Google Scholar
Angelovska, T, Krulatz, A., & Šurkalović, D. (2020b). Predicting EFL Teacher Candidates’ Preparedness to Work with Multilingual Learners: Snapshots from Three European Universities. The European Journal Of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, 9(1), 183–208.Google Scholar
Agustín-Llach, M. D. P. (2019). The Impact of Bilingualism on the Acquisition of an Additional Language: Evidence from Lexical Knowledge, Lexical Fluency, and (Lexical) Cross-Linguistic Influence. International Journal of Bilingualism, 23(5), 888–900.Google Scholar
Bailey, E. G., & Marsden, E. (2017). Teachers’ Views on Recognising and Using Home Languages in Predominantly Monolingual Primary Schools. Language and Education, 31(4), 283–306.Google Scholar
Balcom, P., & Bouffard, P. (2015). The Effect of Input Flooding and Explicit Instruction on Learning Adverb Placement in L3 French. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 18(2), 1–27.Google Scholar
Barac, R., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingual Effects on Cognitive and Linguistic Development: Role of Language, Cultural Background and Education. Child Development, 83, 413–422,CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardel, C., & Falk, Y. (2007). The Role of the Second Language in Third Language Acquisition: The Case of Germanic Syntax. Second Language Research, 23(4), 459–484.Google Scholar
Bardel, C., & Falk, Y. (2012). The L2 Status Factor and the Declarative/Procedural Distinction. In Cabrelli Amaro, J., Flynn, S., & Rothman, J. (Eds.), Third Language Acquisition in Adulthood (Studies in Bilingualism 46; pp. 61–78). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Bardel, C., & Sánchez, L. (2017). The L2 Status Factor Hypothesis Revisited: The Role of Metalinguistic Knowledge, Working Memory, Attention and Noticing in Third Language Learning. In Angelovska, T. & Hahn, A. (Eds.), L3 Syntactic Transfer: Models, New Developments and Implications (Bilingual Processing and Acquisition 5; pp. 85–101). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Benati, A., & Angelovska, T. (2016). Second Language Acquisition: A Theoretical Introduction to Real World Applications. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Benati, A., & Schwieter, J. W. (2017). Input Processing and Processing Instruction: Pedagogical and Cognitive Considerations for L3 Acquisition. In Angelovska, T. & Hahn, A. (Eds.), L3 Syntactic Transfer: Models, New Developments, and Implications (pp. 253–275). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Berkes, É., & Flynn, S. (2012). Further Evidence in Support of the Cumulative-Enhancement Model: CP Structure Development. In Cabrelli Amaro, J., Flynn, S., & Rothman, J. (Eds.), Third Language Acquisition in Adulthood (Studies in Bilingualism 46; pp. 143–164). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control: Evidence from the Simon Task. Psychology & Aging 19, 290–303.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a Protection against the Onset of Symptoms of Dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45, 459–464.Google Scholar
Birdsong, D., Libby, M. G., & Mark, A. (2012). Bilingual Language Profile: An Easy-to-Use Instrument to Assess Bilingualism. COERLL, The University of Texas at Austin. https://sites.la.utexas.edu/bilingual.Google Scholar
Brini, S., Sohrabi, H. R., Hebert, J. J., et al. (2020). Bilingualism Is Associated with a Delayed Onset of Dementia but Not with a Lower Risk of Developing It: A Systematic Review with Meta-analyses. Neuropsychology Review, 30, 1–24.Google Scholar
Budde-Spengler, N., Sachse, S., & Rinker, T. (2021). The Relationship between Input Factors and Early Lexical Knowledge in Turkish–German Children, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 24(8), 1091–1106.Google Scholar
Cabrelli Amaro, J., Amaro, J. F., & Rothman, J. (2015). The Relationship between L3 Transfer and Structural Similarity across Development: Raising across an Experiencer in Brazilian Portuguese. In Peukert, H. (Ed.), Transfer Effects in Multilingual Language Development (pp. 21–52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Carvalho, A. (2021). A Close Look at How Context of Acquisition of Previous Languages Influences Third Language Pedagogy: Does One Model Fit All? In Pinto, J. & Alexandre, N. (Eds.), Multilingualism and Third Language Acquisition (pp. 49–69). Berlin: Language Science Press.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. (2011). The Influence of Bilingualism on Third Language Acquisition: Focus on Multilingualism. Language Teaching, 46(1), 71–86.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., & Valencia, J. (1994). Additive Trilingualism: Evidence from the Basque Country. Applied Psycholinguistics, 15(2), 195–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B., & Jessner, U. (2001). Towards Trilingual Education, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 4(1), 1–10.Google Scholar
Creese, A., & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the Bilingual Classroom: A Pedagogy for Learning and Teaching. The Modern Language Journal, 94(1), 103–115.Google Scholar
Dalton-Puffer, C., Faistauer, R., & Vetter, E. 2011. Research on Language Teaching and Learning in Austria (2004–2009). Language Teaching, 44(2), 181–211.Google Scholar
Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. (1982). Language Two. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Edele, A., Kempert, S., & Schotte, K. (2018). Does Competent Bilingualism Entail Advantages for the Third Language Learning of Immigrant Students? Learning and Instruction, 58, 232–244.Google Scholar
Elsner, D. (2007). Hörverstehen im Englischunterricht der Grundschule: Ein Leistungsvergleich zwischen Kindern mit Deutsch als Muttersprache und Deutsch als Zweitsprache. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
European Council. (2002). Conclusions of the European Council Meeting, Barcelona. www.cilt.org.uk/home/policy/policy_articles_listing/conclusions,__european_council.aspxGoogle Scholar
European Commission (2018). Standard Eurobarometer 89: Public Opinion in the European Union: First Results. https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/ResultDoc/download/DocumentKy/83548Google Scholar
Fallah, N., Jabbari, A. A., & Fazilatfar, A. M. (2016). Source(s) of Syntactic Cross-Linguistic Influence (CLI): The Case of L3 Acquisition of English Possessives by Mazandarani–Persian Bilinguals. Second Language Research, 32(2), 225–245.Google Scholar
Falk, Y., & Bardel, C. (2010). The Study of the Role of the Background Languages in Third Language Acquisition. The State of the Art. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 48(2–3), 185–219.Google Scholar
Falk, Y., & Bardel, C. (2011). Object Pronouns in German L3 Syntax: Evidence for the L2 Status Factor. Second Language Research, 27(1), 59–82.Google Scholar
Falk, Y., Lindqvist, C., & Bardel, C. (2015). The Role of L1 Explicit Metalinguistic Knowledge in L3 Oral Production at the Initial State. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(2), 227–235.Google Scholar
Felix, S. W., & Hahn, A. (1985). Natural Processes in Classroom Second-Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, 6(3), 223–238.Google Scholar
Flynn, S., Foley, C., & Vinnitskaya, I. (2004). The Cumulative-Enhancement Model for Language Acquisition: Comparing Adults’ and Children’s Patterns of Development in First, Second and Third Language Acquisition of Relative Clauses. The International Journal of Multilingualism, 1(1), 2–16.Google Scholar
García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
García, O., & Kleyn, P. (2019). Teacher Education for Multilingual Education. In Chapelle, C. A. (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (pp. 5543–5548).Oxford:Wiley‐Blackwell.Google Scholar
Giancaspro, D., Halloran, B., & Iverson, M. (2015). Examining L3 Transfer: The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking in L3 Brazilian Portuguese. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(2), 191–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilham, P., & Fürstenau, S. (2020). The Relationship between Teachers’ Language Experience and Their Inclusion of Pupils’ Home Languages in School Life. Language and Education, 34(1), 36–50.Google Scholar
González Alonso, J., & Rothman, J. (2017). From Theory to Practice in Multilingualism: What Theoretical Research Implies for Third Language Learning. In Angelovska, T. & Hahn, V. (Eds.), L3 Syntactic Transfer: Models, New Developments and Implications (pp. 277–298). Amsterdam: John Benjamins .Google Scholar
González Alonso, J., Alemán Bañón, J., DeLuca, V., et al. (2020). Event Related Potentials at Initial Exposure in Third Language Acquisition: Implications from an Artificial Mini-Grammar Study. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 56, article 100939.Google Scholar
Hahn, A., & Angelovska, T. (2017). Input-Practice-Output: A Method for Teaching L3 English After L2 German with a Focus on Syntactic Transfer. In Angelovska, T. & Hahn, A. (Eds.), L3 Syntactic Transfer: Models, New Developments and Implications (pp. 299–319). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Haenni Hoti, A. U., Heinzmann, S., Müller, M., et al. (2011). Introducing a Second Foreign Language in Swiss Primary Schools: The Effect of L2 Listening and Reading Skills on L3 Acquisition. International Journal of Multilingualism, 8(2), 98–116.Google Scholar
Haukås, Å. (2016). Teachers’ Beliefs about Multilingualism and a Multilingual Pedagogical Approach. International Journal of Multilingualism, 13(1), 1–18.Google Scholar
Heredia, R. R., Blackburn, A. M., & Vega, L. A. (2020). Moderation-Mediation Effects in Bilingualism and Cognitive Reserve. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2622.Google Scholar
Hesse, H.-G., Göbel, K., & Hartig, J. (2008). Sprachliche Kompetenzen von mehrsprachigen Jugendlichen und Jugendlichen nicht-deutscher Erstsprache. In Konsortium, D. E. S. I. (Ed.), Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch. Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie (pp. 208–230). Weinheim: Beltz.Google Scholar
Hermas, A. (2010). Language Acquisition as Computational Resetting: Verb Movement in L3 Initial State. International Journal of Multilingualism, 7(4), 343–362.Google Scholar
Hermas, A. (2014a). Multilingual Transfer: L1 Morphosyntax in L3 English. International Journal of Language Studies, 8(2), 1–24.Google Scholar
Hermas, A. (2014b). Restrictive Relatives in L3 English: L1 Transfer and Ultimate Attainment Convergence. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 34(3), 361–387.Google Scholar
Heyder, K., & Schädlich, B. (2014). Mehrsprachigkeit und Mehrkulturalität: Eine Umfrage unter Fremdsprachenlehrkräften in Niedersachsen. Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 19(1), 183–201.Google Scholar
Hopp, H. (2019). Cross-Linguistic Influence in the Child Third Language Acquisition of Grammar: Sentence Comprehension and Production Among Turkish–German and German Learners of English. International Journal of Bilingualism, 23(2), 567–583.Google Scholar
Illman, V., & Pietilä, P. (2018). Multilingualism as a Resource in the Foreign Language Classroom. ELT Journal, 72(3), 237–248.Google Scholar
Jin, F. (2009). Third Language Acquisition of Norwegian Objects: Interlanguage Transfer or L1 Influence? In Leung, Y. I. (Ed.), Third Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar (pp. 144–161). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klieme, E. (2006). Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch: Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie. SchulVerwaltung – Ausgabe Bayern, 29(4), 124–127.Google Scholar
Kucukali, E. (2021). Multilingual Teachers, Plurilingual Approach and L3 Acquisition: Interviews with Multilingual Teachers and Their L3/L3+ Students. In Pinto, J. & Alexandre, N. (Eds.), Multilingualism and Third Language Acquisition (pp. 69–95). Berlin: Language Science Press.Google Scholar
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Lasagabaster, D. (1998). Learning English as an L3. ITL Review of Applied Linguistics, 121/122, 51–84.Google Scholar
Lasagabaster, D. (2001). The Effect of Knowledge about the L1 on Foreign Language Skills and Grammar. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 4(5), 310–331.Google Scholar
Lehtonen, M., Soveri, A., Laine, A., et al. (2018). Is Bilingualism Associated with Enhanced Executive Functioning in Adults? A Meta-analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(4), 394–425.Google Scholar
Leivada, E., Westergaard, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Rothman, J. (2020). On the Phantom-Like Appearance of Bilingualism Effects on Neurocognition: (How) Should We Proceed? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(1) 197–210.Google Scholar
Lorenz, E., Rahbari, S., Schackowc, U., & Siemund, P. (2020). Does Bilingualism Correlate with or Predict Higher Proficiency in L3 English? A Contrastive Study of Monolingual and Bilingual Learners. Journal of Multilingual Theories and Practices, 1(2), 185–217.Google Scholar
Maluch, J. T., & Kempert, S. (2019). Bilingual Profiles and Third Language Learning: The Effects of the Manner of Learning, Sequence of Bilingual Acquisition, and Language Use Practices. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(7), 820–822.Google Scholar
Maluch, J. T., Kempert, S., Neumann, M., & Stanat, P. (2015). The Effect of Speaking a Minority Language at Home on Foreign Language Learning. Learning and Instruction, 36, 76–85.Google Scholar
Maluch, J. T., Neumann, M., & Kempert, S. (2016). Bilingualism as a Resource for Foreign Language Learning of Language Minority Students? Empirical Evidence from a Longitu-Dinal Study During Primary and Secondary School in Germany. Learning and Individual Differences, 51, 111–118.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2000). Bilingualism and Trilingualism in School Students in Catalonia. In Cenoz, J. & Jessner, U. (Eds.), English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language (pp. 157–178). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odlin, T. (1989). Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Otwinowska‐Kasztelanic, A. (2017). English Teachers’ Language Awareness: Away with the Monolingual Bias? Language Awareness, 26(4), 304–324.Google Scholar
Paap, K. R., Johnson, H. A., & Sawi, O. (2015). Bilingual Advantages in Executive Functioning Either Do Not Exist or Are Restricted to Very Specific and Undetermined Circumstances, Cortex, 69, 265–278.Google Scholar
Paap, K., Mason, L., Zimiga, B., Silva, Y., & Frost, M. (2020). The Alchemy of Confirmation Bias Transmutes Expectations into Bilingual Advantages: A Tale of Two New Meta-analyses. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73(8), 1290–1299.Google Scholar
Paradis, M. (2004). A Neurolinguistic Theory of Bilingualism. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Park, M., & Starr, R. L. (2016). The Role of Formal L2 Learning Experience in L3 Acquisition among Early Bilinguals. International Journal of Multilingualism, 13(3), 274–291.Google Scholar
Puig-Mayenco, E., & Marsden, H. (2018). Polarity-Item Anything in L3 English: Where Does Transfer Come from When the L1 IS Catalan and the L2 Is Spanish? Second Language Research, 34(4), 487–515.Google Scholar
Puig-Mayenco, E., & Rothman, J. (2020). Low Proficiency Does Not Mean Ab Initio: A Methodological Footnote for Linguistic Transfer Studies, Language Acquisition, 27(2), 217–226.Google Scholar
Puig-Mayenco, E., González Alonso, J., & Rothman, J. (2020) A Systematic Review of Transfer Studies in Third Language Acquisition. Second Language Research, 36(1), 31–64.Google Scholar
Ringbom, H., & Jarvis, S. (2009). The Importance of Cross-Linguistic Similarity in Foreign Language Learning. In Long, M. H. & Doughty, C. (Eds.), The Handbook of Language Teaching (pp. 106–118). New York:Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rothman, J. (2010). On the Typological Economy of Syntactic Transfer: Word Order and Relative Clause High/Low Attachment Preference in L3 Brazilian Portuguese. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Teaching, 48, 245–273.Google Scholar
Rothman, J. (2011). L3 Syntactic Transfer Selectivity and Typological Determinacy: The Typological Primacy Model. Second Language Research, 27, 107–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothman, J. (2013). Cognitive Economy, Non-redundancy and Typological Primacy in L3 Acquisition: Evidence from Initial Stages of L3 Romance. In Baauw, S., Dirjkoningen, F., & Pinto, M. (Eds.), Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory (pp. 217–247). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Rothman, J. (2015). Linguistic and Cognitive Motivations for the Typological Primacy Model (TPM) of Third Language (L3) Transfer: Timing of Acquisition and Proficiency Considered. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(2), 1–12.Google Scholar
Rothman, J., & Cabrelli Amaro, J. (2010). What Variables Condition Syntactic Transfer? A Look at the L3 Initial State. Second Language Research, 26(2), 189–218.Google Scholar
Rothman, J., González Alonso, J., & Puig-Mayenco, E. (2018). Third Language Acquisition and Linguistic Transfer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sagasta Errasti, M. P. (2003). Acquiring Writing Skills in a Third Language: The Positive Effects of Bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7(1), 27–42.Google Scholar
Sanz, C. (2000). Bilingual Education Enhances Third Language Acquisition: Evidence from Catalonia. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21(1), 23–44.Google Scholar
Sanz, C. (2007). The Role of Bilingual Literacy in the Acquisition of a Third Language. In Pérez Vidal, C., Bel, A., & Juan Garau, M. (Eds.), A Portrait of the Young in the New Multilingual Spain. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. D., & Sprouse, R. (1996). L2 Cognitive States and the Full Transfer/Full Access Model. Second Language Research, 12(1), 40–72.Google Scholar
Slabakova, R. (2017). The Scalpel Model of Third Language Acquisition. International Journal of Bilingualism, 21(6), 651–665.Google Scholar
Stafford, C. A, Sanz, C., & Bowden, H. W. (2010). An Experimental Study of Early L3 Development: Age, Bilingualism and Classroom Exposure. International Journal of Multilingualism, 7, 162–183.Google Scholar
Stafford, C. A, Bowden, H. W, & Sanz, C. (2012). Optimizing Language Instruction: Matters of Explicitness, Practice, and Cue Learning. Language Learning, 62, 741–768.Google Scholar
Steinlen, A., & Piske, T. (2013). Academic Achievement of Children with and Without Migration Backgrounds in an Immersion Primary School: A Pilot Study. Zeitschrift Für Anglistik Und Amerikanistik, 61(3), 215–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Den Noort, M., Struys, E., Bosch, P., et al. (2019). Does the Bilingual Advantage in Cognitive Control Exist and if So, What Are Its Modulating Factors? A Systematic Review. Behavioral Sciences, 9(3), article 27.Google Scholar
Wardhaugh, R. 1970. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4, 123–130.Google Scholar
Ware, A., Kirkovski, M., & Lum, J. (2020). Meta-analysis Reveals a Bilingual Advantage that is Dependent on Task and Age. Frontiers in Psychology 11, 1458.Google Scholar
Westergaard, M., Mitrofanova, N., Mykhaylyk, R., & Rodina, Y. (2017). Crosslinguistic Influence in the Acquisition of a Third Language: The Linguistic Proximity Model. International Journal of Bilingualism, 21(6), 666–682.Google Scholar
Ziegler, G. (2013). Multilingualism and the Language Education Landscape: Challenges for Teacher Training in Europe. Multilingual Education, 3(1), 1–23.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×