Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-45l2p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T11:08:29.975Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

12 - The Evolution of Episodic Cognition

The Sense of Time

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 July 2022

By
Gema Martin-Ordas
Edited by
Bennett L. Schwartz  and
Michael J. Beran
Bennett L. Schwartz
Affiliation:
Florida International University
Michael J. Beran
Affiliation:
Georgia State University
Get access

Summary

Mental time travel involves remembering personal past events (i.e., episodic memory) and thinking about future ones (i.e., future thinking). Despite empirical evidence showing that animals might be capable of mental time travel, some still remain skeptical about this issue. The aim in this chapter will be to reflect on the concept of episodic memory and future thinking as well as on the experimental approaches used in comparative psychology to study these abilities. A critical analysis of both the conceptualization of mental time travel and the experimental paradigms will be provided. I will finish by questioning the extent to which the sense of past has been addressed in this type of research and by suggesting lines of future research.

Keywords

episodic memoryfuture thinkinganimalshumanssense of time
Type
Chapter
Information
Primate Cognitive Studies , pp. 291 - 313
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Addis, D. R., Sacchetti, D. C., Ally, B. A., Budson, A. E., & Schacter, D. L. (2009). Episodic simulation of future events is impaired in mild Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2660–2671.Google Scholar
Addis, D. R., Wong, A.T, & Schacter, D. L. (2007). Remembering the past and imagining the future: Common and distinct neural substrates during event construction and elaboration. Neuropsychologia, 45, 1363–1377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arndt, J., & Reder, L. M. (2002). Word frequency and receiver operating characteristic curves in recognition memory: Evidence for a dual process interpretation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 28, 830–842.Google ScholarPubMed
Atance, C. M., Louw, A., & Clayton, N. S. (2015). Thinking ahead about where something is needed: New insights about episodic foresight in preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 129, 98–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atance, C. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2005). My future self: Young children’s ability to anticipate and explain future states. Cognitive Development, 20, 341–361CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atance, C. M., & O’Neill, D. K. (2001). Episodic future thinking. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 533–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atance, C. M., & O’Neill, D. K. (2005). Preschoolers’ talk about future situations. First Language, 25, 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atance, C. M., & Sommerville, J. A. (2014). Assessing the role of memory in preschoolers’ performance on episodic foresight tasks. Memory, 22, 118–128.Google Scholar
Babb, S. J., & Crystal, J. D. (2006). Discrimination of what, when and where is not based on the time of the day. Learning and Behaviour, 34, 124–130.Google Scholar
Basile, B., & Hampton, R. R. (2011). Monkeys recall and reproduce simple shapes from memory. Current Biology, 21, 774–778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, L. R., Roberts, W. A., Abroms, B., Kit, K. A., & Crupi, C. (2003). Spatial memory for food hidden by rats (Rattus norvegicus) on the radial maze: Studies of memory for what, where and when. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 117, 176–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boroditsky, L. (2011). How language shapes thought. Scientific American, 304, 62–66.Google Scholar
Campbell, J. (2006). Ordinary thinking about time. In Stöltzner, M. and Stadler, F. (Eds.), Time and history: Proceedings of the 28th international Ludwig Wittgenstein symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, Austria 2005 (pp. 1–12). Ontos.Google Scholar
Cheke, L. G., & Clayton, N. S. (2010). Mental time travel in animals. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1, 1–16.Google Scholar
Cheke, L. G., & Clayton, N. S. (2013). Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults? Learning and Memory, 20, 491–498.Google Scholar
Clayton, N. S., Bussey, T. J., & Dickinson, A. (2003). Can animals recall the past and plan for the future? Nature Review Neuroscience, 4, 685–691.Google Scholar
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1998). Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature, 395, 272–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1999a). Memory for the contents of caches by scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 25, 82–91.Google Scholar
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1999b). Motivational control of caching behavior in the scrub jay, Aphelocoma coerulescens. Animal Behaviour, 57, 435–444.Google Scholar
Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1999c). Scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) remember the relative time of caching as well as the location and content of their caches. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 113, 403–416.Google Scholar
Clayton, N. S., Yu, K. S., & Dickinson, A. (2003). Interacting cache memories: Evidence for flexible memory use by western scrub-jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 29, 14–22.Google Scholar
Craig, M., Butterworth, K., Nilsson, J., Hamilton, C., Gallagher, P., & Smulders, T. V. (2016). How does intentionality of encoding affect memory for episodic information? Learning and Memory, 23, 648–659.Google Scholar
Cuevas, K., Rajan, V., Morasch, K. C., & Bell, M. A. (2015). Episodic memory and future thinking during early childhood: Linking the past and future. Developmental Psychobiology, 57, 552–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Kort, S. R., Dickinson, A., & Clayton, N. S. (2005). Retrospective cognition by food-caching western scrub-jays. Learning and Motivation, 36, 159–176.Google Scholar
Dekleva, M., Dufour, V., de Vries, H., Spruijt, B. M., & Sterck, E. H. M. (2011). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) fail a what–where–when task but find rewards by using a location-based association strategy. PLoS ONE, 6, e16593.Google Scholar
Dere, E., Zlomuzica, A., Huston, J. P., & De Souza Silva, M. A. (2008). Animal episodic memory. In Dere, E., Easton, A., Nadel, L., & Huston, J. P. (Eds.), Handbook of episodic memory, Vol. 18 (pp. 155–184). Elsevier Science.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickerson, K. L., Ainge, J. A., & Seed, A. M. (2018). The role of association in pre-schoolers’ solutions to “spoon tests” of future planning. Current Biology, 28, 2309–2313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudai, Y., & Carruthers, M. (2005). The Janus face of Mnemosyne. Nature, 434, 567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dufour, V., & Sterck, E. H. M. (2008). Chimpanzees fail to plan in an exchange task but succeed in a tool-using procedure. Behavioural Processes, 79, 19–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Easton, A., Webster, L. A., & Eacott, M. J. (2012). The episodic nature of episodic-like memories. Learning and Memory, 19, 146–150.Google Scholar
Eichenbaum, H., Fortin, N. J., Ergorul, C., Wright, S. P., & Agster, K. L. (2005). Episodic recollection in animals: “If it walks like a duck and quacks like a duck…”. Learning and Motivation, 36, 190–207.Google Scholar
Ergorul, C., & Eichenbaum, H. (2004). The hippocampus and memory for “what,” “where,” and “when”. Learning and Memory, 11, 397–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everett, C. (2017). Numbers and the making of us: Counting and the course of human cultures. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ferkin, M. H., Combs, A., del Barco-Trillo, J., Pierce, A. A., & Franklin, S. (2008). Meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, have the capacity to recall the “what,” “where” and “when” of a single past event. Animal Cognition, 11, 147–159.Google Scholar
Hampton, R. (2019). Parallel overinterpretation of behavior of apes and corvids. Learning and Behavior, 47, 105–106.Google Scholar
Hampton, R. R., Hampstead, B. M., & Murray, E. A. (2005). Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) demonstrate robust memory for what and where, but not for when, in an open-field test of memory. Learning and Motivation, 36, 245–259.Google Scholar
Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., Vann, S. D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007). Patients with hippocampal amnesia cannot imagine new experiences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 1726–1731.Google Scholar
Hayne, H., & Imuta, K. (2011). Episodic memory in 3- and 4-year-old children. Developmental Psychobiology, 53, 317–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, J., Hurly, T. A., Bateson, M., & Healy, S. D. (2006). Timing in free living rufous humming birds, Selasphorus rufus. Current Biology, 16, 512–515.Google Scholar
Hockley, W. E. (1992). Item versus associative information: Further comparisons of forgetting rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, 1321–1330.Google Scholar
Hoerl, C., & McCormack, T. (2011). Time in cognitive development. In Callender, C. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of the philosophy of time (pp. 439–459). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hoerl, C., & McCormack, T. (2019). Thinking in and about time: A dual systems perspective on temporal cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 42, e244, 1–69.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L., Beran, M. J., & Washburn, D. A. (2009). Memory for “what,” “where,” and “when” information in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 35, 143–152.Google Scholar
Holland, S. M., & Smulders, T. V. (2011). Do humans use episodic memory to solve a what–where–when memory task? Animal Cognition, 14, 95–102.Google Scholar
Hudson, J. A., Mayhew, E. M. Y., & Prabhakar, J. (2011). The development of episodic foresight: Emerging concepts and methods. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 40, 95–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jozet-Alves, C., Bertin, M., & Clayton, N.S. (2013). Evidence of episodic-like memory in cuttlefish. Current Biology, 23, 1033–1035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, R., & Wixted, J. T. (2001). On the nature of associative information in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 27, 701–722.Google ScholarPubMed
Keven, N. (2016) Events, narratives and memory. Synthese, 193, 2497–2517.Google Scholar
Keven, N. (2019). Let’s call a memory a memory, but what kind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 42, e32–33.Google Scholar
Klein, S. B. (2013a). The complex act of projecting oneself into the future. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4, 63–79.Google Scholar
Klein, S. B. (2013b). Making the case that episodic recollection is attributable to operations occurring at retrieval rather than to content stored in a dedicated subsystem of long-term memory. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 3.Google Scholar
Klein, S. B., Loftus, J., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (2002). Memory and temporal experience: The effects of episodic memory loss on an amnesic patient’s ability to remember the past and imagine the future. Social Cognition, 20, 353–379.Google Scholar
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, A, Berntsen, D. & Call, J. (2019). Long-term memory of past events in great apes. Current Direction in Psychological Science, 28, 117–123.Google Scholar
Lewis, A., Call, J., & Berntsen, D. (2017). Non-goal-directed recall of specific events in apes after long delays. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B London, 284, 20170518.Google Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G. (2018). “First, I will get the marbles.” Children’s foresight abilities in a modified spoon task. Cognitive Development, 45, 152–161.Google Scholar
Martin‐Ordas, G. (2020a) It is about time: Conceptual and experimental evaluation of the temporal cognitive mechanisms in mental time travel. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 11, e1530.Google Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G. (2020b). What human planning can tell us about animal planning: An empirical case. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin-Ordas, G., & Atance, C. M. (2019). Adults’ performance in an episodic-like memory task: The role of experience. Frontiers in Psychology: Cognition, 9, 2688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G., Atance, C. M., & Call, J., (2014) Remembering in tool-use tasks in children: The role of the information at encoding. Memory, 22, 129–44.Google Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G., Atance, C. M., & Caza, J. (2017). Did the popsicle melt? Preschoolers’ performance in an episodic-like memory task. Memory, 25, 1260–1271.Google Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G., Berntsen, D, & Call, J. (2013). Memory for distant past events in chimpanzees and orangutans. Current Biology, 23, 1438–1441.Google Scholar
Martin-Ordas, G., Haun, D., Colmenares, F., & Call, J. (2010). Keeping track of time: Evidence of episodic-like memory in great apes. Animal Cognition, 13, 331–340.Google Scholar
Mazurek, A., Bhoopathy, R. M., Read, J. C. A., Gallagher, P., & Smulders, T. V. (2015). Effects of age on a real-world what–where–when memory task. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 1–17.Google Scholar
McCormack, T. (2001). Attributing episodic memory to animals and children. In Hoerl, C., & McCormack, T. (Eds.), Time and memory: Issues in philosophy and psychology (pp. 285–314). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McCormack, T., & Hoerl, C. (2011). Tool use, planning, and future thinking in animals and children. In McCormack, T., Hoerl, C., & Butterfill, S. (Eds.), Tool use and causal cognition (pp. 129–147). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McKenzie, T.L.B., Bird, L.R., & Roberts, W.A. (2005). The effects of cache modification on food caching and retrieval behavior by rats. Learning and Motivation, 36, 260–278.Google Scholar
Menzel, C. (2005). Progress in the study of chimpanzee recall and episodic memory. In Terrace, H. S. & Metcalfe, J. (Eds.), The missing link in cognition: Origins of self-reflective consciousness (pp. 188–224). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mulcahy, N. J., & Call, J. (2006). Apes save tools for future use. Science, 312, 1038–1040.Google Scholar
Naqshbandi, M., & Roberts, W. A. (2006). Anticipation of future events in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and rats (Rattus norvegicus): Tests of the Bischof–Köhler hypothesis. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 120, 345–357.Google Scholar
Núñez, R. E., & Sweetser, E. (2006). With the future behind them: Convergent evidence from Aymara language and gesture in the crosslinguistic comparison of spatial construals of time. Cognitive Science, 30, 401–450.Google Scholar
Okuda, J., Fujii, T., Ohtake, H., Tsukiura, T., Tanji, K., Suzuki, K., Kawashima, R., Fukuda, H., Itoh, M., & Yamadori, A. (2003). Thinking of the future and past: The roles of the frontal pole and the medial temporal lobes. Neuroimage, 19, 1369–1380.Google Scholar
Osvath, M. (2009). Spontaneous planning for stone throwing by a male chimpanzee. Current Biology, R191–R192.Google Scholar
Osvath, M., & Karvonen, E. (2012). Spontaneous innovation for future deception in a male chimpanzee. PloS ONE, 7, e36782.Google Scholar
Osvath, M. & Martin-Ordas, G. (2014). The future of future oriented cognition in non-humans: Theory and the empirical case of the great apes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 69, 20130486.Google Scholar
Osvath, M., & Osvath, H. (2008). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and orangutan (Pongo abelii) forethought: Self-control and pre-experience in the face of future tool use. Animal Cognition, 11, 661–674.Google Scholar
Osvath, M., & Persson, T. (2013). Great apes can defer exchange: A replication with different results suggesting future oriented behaviour. Frontiers in Comparative Psychology, 4, 698.Google Scholar
Osvath, M., Raby, C. R., & Clayton, N. C. (2010). What should be compared in comparative mental time travel? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 51–52.Google Scholar
Pause, B., Jungbluth, C., Adolph, D., Pietrowsky, R., & Dere, E. (2010). Induction and measurement of episodic memories in healthy adults. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 189, 88–96.Google Scholar
Pillemer, D. (2003). Directive functions of autobiographical memory: The guiding power of specific episodes. Memory, 11, 193–202.Google Scholar
Plancher, G., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., & Piolino, P. (2010). Age effect on components of episodic memory and feature binding: A virtual reality study. Neuropsychology, 24, 379–390.Google Scholar
Rathbone, C. J., Conway, M. A., & Moulin, C. J. A. (2011). Remembering and imagining: The role of the self. Consciousness and Cognition, 20, 1175–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Redshaw, J. (2014). Does metarepresentation make human mental time travel unique? Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 5, 519–531.Google Scholar
Redshaw, J., & Suddendorf, T. (2013). Foresight beyond the very next event: Four-year-olds can link past and deferred future episodes. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1–6.Google Scholar
Roberts, W. A. (2002). Are animals stuck in time? Psychological Bulletin, 128, 473–489.Google Scholar
Roberts, W. A., & Feeney, M.C. (2009). The comparative study of mental time travel. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 271–277.Google Scholar
Roberts, W. A., & Feeney, M. C. (2010). Temporal sequencing is essential to future planning: Response to Osvath, Raby and Clayton. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1, 14, 52–53.Google Scholar
Roberts, W. A., Feeney, M. C., MacPherson, K., Petter, M., McMillan, N., & Musolino, E. (2008). Episodic-like memory in rats: Is it based on when or how long ago? Science 320, 113–115.Google Scholar
Rotello, C. M., Macmillan, N. A., & Van Tassel, G. (2000). Recall-to reject in recognition: Evidence from ROC curves. Journal of Memory and Language, 43, 67–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J., Alexis, D., & Clayton, N. (2010). Episodic future thinking in 3-to 5-year-old children: The ability to think of what will be needed from a different point of view. Cognition, 114, 56–71.Google Scholar
Salwiczek, L. H., & Bshary, R. (2011). Cleaner wrasses keep track of the “when” and “what” in a foraging task. Ethology, 117, 939–948.Google Scholar
Scarf, D., Gross, J., Colombo, M., & Hayne, H. (2013). To have and to hold: Episodic memory in 3- and 4-year-old children. Developmental Psychobiology, 55, 125–132.Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007). The ghosts of past and future. Nature, 445, 27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, B. L. (2005). Do humans primates have episodic memory? In Terrace, H. S. & Metcalfe, J. (Eds.), The missing link in cognition (pp. 225–241). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. L., Colon, M. R., Sanchez, I. C., Rodriguez, I. A., & Evans, S. (2002). Single-trial learning of “what” and “who” information in a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla): Implications for episodic memory. Animal Cognition, 5, 85–90.Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. L., Hoffman, M. L., & Evans, S. (2005). Episodic-like memory in a gorilla: A review and new findings. Learning and Motivation, 36, 226–244.Google Scholar
Skov-Rackette, S. I., Miller, N. Y., & Shettleworth, S. J. (2006). What–where–when memory in pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour, 32, 345–358.Google Scholar
Slotnick, S. D., Klein, S. A., Dodson, C. S., & Shimamura, A. P. (2000). An analysis of signal detection and threshold models of source memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26, 1499–1517.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T. (2006). Foresight and evolution of the human mind. Science, 312, 1006–1007.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T., & Busby, J. (2003). Like it or not? The mental time travel debate. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 437–438.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (1997). Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 123, 133–167.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M.C. (2007). The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30, 299–313.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T., Nielsen, M., & von Gehlen, R. (2011). Children’s capacity to remember a novel problem and to secure its future solution. Developmetal Science, 14, 26–33.Google Scholar
Szpunar, K. K. (2010). Episodic future thought: An emerging concept. Perspectives on Psychological Sciences, 5, 142–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szpunar, K. K., & McDermott, K. B. (2008). Episodic future thought and its relation to remembering: Evidence from ratings of subjective experience. Consciousness and Cognition, 17, 330–334.Google Scholar
Szpunar, K. K., Watson, J. M., & McDermott, K. B. (2007). Neural substrates of envisioning the future. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 642–647.Google Scholar
Templer, V. L., & Hampton, R. R. (2013). Episodic memory in nonhuman animals. Current Biology, 23, R801–R806.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In Tulving, E. & Donaldson, W. (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 381–403). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 1–25.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (2005). Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human? In Terrace, H. S. and Metcalfe, J. (Eds.), The missing link in cognition (pp. 3–56). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Yonelinas, A. P. (1997). Recognition memory ROCs for item and associative information: The contribution of recollection and familiarity. Memory and Cognition, 25, 747–763.Google Scholar
Yonelinas, A. P. (1999a). The contribution of recollection and familiarity to recognition and source-memory judgments: A formal dual-process model and an analysis of receiver operating characteristics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 25, 1415–1434.Google Scholar
Yonelinas, A. P. (1999b). Recognition memory ROCs and the dual-process signal-detection model: Comment on Glanzer, Kim, Hilford, and Adams (1999). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 25, 514 –521.Google Scholar
Yonelinas, A. P. (2001). Components of episodic memory: The contribution of recollection and familiarity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B, 356, 1363–1374.Google Scholar
Yonelinas, A. P. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: A review of 30 years of research. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 441–517.Google Scholar
Zhou, W., & Crystal, J. D. (2009). Evidence for remembering when events occurred in a rodent model of episodic memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 9525–9529.Google Scholar
Zinkivskay, A, Nazir, F., & Smulders, T. V. (2009). What–where–when memory in magpies (Pica pica). Animal Cognition, 12, 119–125.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×