Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-5nwft Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-05T19:03:39.300Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 10 - Traumatic Stress Conceptual Framework

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2022

Armen Goenjian
Affiliation:
David Geffen School of Medicine; UCLA/Duke University National Center for Child Traumatic Stress
Alan Steinberg
Affiliation:
UCLA/Duke University National Center for Child Traumatic Stress
Robert Pynoos
Affiliation:
UCLA/Duke University National Center for Child Traumatic Stress
Get access

Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the components of the evolving conceptual model since the 1988 Spitak earthquake that guided the intervention and research arms of our work in Armenia. With the concept of traumatic stress as the gateway to post-trauma sequelae and recovery, we recognized the important contributions made by post-trauma adversities and the pervasiveness of trauma and loss reminders in the aftermath. Individual and ecological factors were seen as making powerful contributions to the impact and course of recovery, especially in terms of factors associated with resistance, resilience, vulnerability, adjustment, maladjustment, and pathology. The traumatic stress pathway is embedded in a developmental perspective, with the understanding that child, adolescent, and adult development plays an overarching role across all aspects of the conceptual framework. In addition, cultural and religious factors are also seen as integral. Implications of the conceptual model for data collection metrics and methodology, as well as intervention strategies are also discussed.

Type
Chapter
Information
Lessons Learned in Disaster Mental Health
The Earthquake in Armenia and Beyond
, pp. 162 - 178
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, B., Brymer, M., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., Brymer, M. J., Jacobs, A., Speier, A., & Pynoos, R. (2010). Perceptions of psychological first aid among providers responding to Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 509513.Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C. H., Perry, B. D., … & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256 (3), 174186.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, S., Bryant, R., Brymer, M., Hamblen, J., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Macy, R., Osofsky, H., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (2010). National Center for PTSD and National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Skills for psychological recovery: field operations guide. Available at: www.nctsn.org and www.ptsd.va.gov.Google Scholar
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., Vernberg, E., & Watson, P. (2006). Psychological First Aid Field Operations Guide, National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD.Google Scholar
Center for Disease Control Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Social Vulnerability Index. (2020). Available at: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/.Google Scholar
Chen, S. H., Lin, Y., Wu, Y. (2002) Posttraumatic stress reactions in children and adolescents one year after the 1999 Taiwan Chi-Chi earthquake. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, 25 (5), 597608. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533839.2002.9670734.Google Scholar
Chen, S. H., & Wu, Y. C. (2006). Changes of PTSD symptoms and school reconstruction: a two-year prospective study of children and adolescents after the Taiwan 921 earthquake. Natural Hazards, 37, 12, 225244.Google Scholar
Coker, A. L., Hanks, J. S., Eggleston, K. S., Risser, J., Tee, P. G., Chronister, K. J., Troisi, C. L., Arafat, R., & Franzini, L. (2006). Social and mental health needs assessment of Katrina evacuees. Disaster Management & Response, 4 (3), 8894.Google Scholar
Erikson, K. T. (1978). Everything in its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Fairbank, J. A., Putnam, F. W., & Harris, W. W. (2007). The prevalence and impact of child traumatic stress. In Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (eds.), A Handbook of PTSD: Science and Practice (pp. 229251). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.Google Scholar
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14 (4), 245258.Google Scholar
Frankenberg, E., Friedman, J., Gillespie, T., Ingwersen, N., Pynoos, R. S., Umar Rifai, L., Sikoki, J., Steinberg, A. M., Sumantri, C., Suriastini, W., & Thomas, D. (2008). Mental health in Sumatra after the tsunami. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 16711677.Google Scholar
Galatzer, I. R., Huang, S. H., & Bononno, G. A. (2018). Trajectories of resilience and dysfunction following potential trauma: a review and statistical evaluation. Psychology Review, 63. 4155.Google Scholar
Gibbs, L., Nursey, J., Cook, J., Ireton, G., Alkemade, N., Roberts, M., Gallagher, H., Bryant, R., Block, K., Molyneaux, R., & Forbes, D. (2019). Delayed disaster impacts on academic performance of primary school children. Child Development, 90, 14021412.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A. K. (1993) A mental health relief programme in Armenia after the 1988 earthquake: implementation and clinical observations. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 230239.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A., Najarian, L. M., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Petrosian, P., Sterakyan, S., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1994). Posttraumatic stress reactions after single and double trauma. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 90, 214221.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A. K., Karayan, I., Pynoos, R. S., Minassian, D., Najarian, L. M., Steinberg, A. M., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1997). Outcome of psychotherapy among early adolescents after trauma. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154 (4), 536542. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.4.536.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A. K., Stilwell, B. M., Steinberg, A. M., Fairbanks, L. A., Galvin, M., Karayan, I., & Pynoos, R. S. (1999). Moral development and psychopathological interference with conscience functioning among adolescents after trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 376384.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A., Molina, L., Steinberg, A., Fairbanks, L., Alvarez, M., Goenjian, H., & Pynoos, R. (2001). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 788794.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A. K., Walling, D., Steinberg, A. M., Karayan, I., Najarian, L. M., & Pynoos, R. (2005). A prospective study of posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among treated and untreated adolescents 5 years after a catastrophic disaster. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162 (12), 23022308. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2302.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A., Steinberg, A., Walling, D., Bishop, S., Karayan, I., & Pynoos, R. S. (2020). 25-year follow-up of treated and not-treated adolescents after the Spitak earthquake: course and predictors of PTSD and depression. Psychological Medicine, 51 (6), 113. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719003891.Google Scholar
Green, B., Grace, M., Jacob, D., Lindy, G., Gleser, A., Leonard, A., & Kramer, T. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: comparison with unexposed and nonlitigant groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13, 10331050.Google Scholar
Hobfoll, S.E., (1989) Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. American Psychologist, 44: 513–524.Google Scholar
Hobfoll, S., Watson, P., Bell, C., et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: empirical evidence. Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes, 70, 283315.Google Scholar
Hughes, M., Brymer, M., Chiu, W. T., Fairbank, J. A., Jones, R. T., Pynoos, R. S., Rothwell, V., Steinberg, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2011). Posttraumatic stress among students after the shootings at Virginia Tech. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3 (4), 403411.Google Scholar
La Greca, A. M., Lai, B. S., Labre, M. M., Silverman, W. K., Vernberg, E. M., & Prinstein, M. J. (2013). Children’s post-disaster trajectories of PTS symptoms: predicting chronic distress. Child & Youth Care Forum, 42 (4), 351369.Google Scholar
Lai, B. S., Lewis, R., Livings, M. S., La Greca, A. M., & Esnard, A. (2017). Posttraumatic stress symptom trajectories among children after disaster exposure: a review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30, 571582.Google Scholar
Layne, C. M., Steinberg, J. R., & Steinberg, A. M. (2014). Causal reasoning skills training for mental health practitioners: promoting sound clinical judgment in evidence-based practice. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 8, 292302.Google Scholar
Layne, C. M., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2020). Understanding posttraumatic adjustment trajectories in school-age youth: supporting stress resistance, resilient recovery, and growth. In Rossen, E. (ed.), Supporting and Educating Traumatized Students: A Guide for School-Based Professionals (2nd edn.) (pp. 7597). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Available at: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/supporting-and-educating-traumatized-students-9780190052737.Google Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., & Wraith, R. (1995). A developmental model of childhood traumatic stress. In: Cicchetti, D. and Cohen, D. J. (eds.), Manual of Developmental Psychopathology. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 7293.Google Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., Goenjian, A. K., & Steinberg, A. M. (1998a). Children and disasters: a developmental approach to posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 52 (Supplement), S129S138.Google Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., Goenjian, A. K., & Steinberg, A. M. (1998b). A public mental health approach to the post-disaster treatment of children and adolescents. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7, 195210.Google Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., & Piacentini, J. C. (1999). Developmental psychopathology of childhood traumatic stress and implications for associated anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 15421554.Google Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Layne, C. M., Liang, L., Vivrette, R., Briggs, E. C., & Fairbank, J. A. (2014). Modeling constellations of trauma exposure in the National Child Traumatic Stress Network core data set. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6 (Suppl.1), S9S17. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037767.Google Scholar
Steinberg, A. M., & Ritzmann, R. F. (1990. A living systems approach to understanding the concept of stress. Behavioral Science, 35, 138146.Google Scholar
Steinberg, A. M., Pynoos, R. S., Goenjian, A. K., Sossanabadi, H., & Sherr, L. (1999). Are researchers bound by child abuse reporting laws? Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 771777.Google Scholar
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Kim, S., Ghosh, C., Ostrowski, S. A., Gulley, K., & Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD Reaction Index: Part 1. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26 (1), 19. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21780Google Scholar
Susser, M. (1973). Causal Thinking in the Health Sciences: Concepts and Strategies of Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Watson, P., Brymer, M., & Bonnano, G. (2011). Post-disaster psychological intervention since 9/11. American Psychologist, 66, 482494.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×