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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 May 2019

Edited by
Charles C. Jalloh ,
Kamari M. Clarke  and
Vincent O. Nmehielle
Charles C. Jalloh
Affiliation:
Florida International University
Kamari M. Clarke
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Vincent O. Nmehielle
Affiliation:
The African Development Bank

Summary

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Type
Chapter
Information
The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples' Rights in Context
Development and Challenges
 , pp. 1125 - 1168
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Abacha, Sami, 497–499
Abass, Ademola, 15, 38, 46, 81, 635
abetting. See aiding and abetting
abuse of functions, in corruption, 485–486
quality control provisions, 485
ACC. See African Criminal Court
accession system jurisdictions, 611
accessory mode, of liability, 747–760, 772–781
accomplice corporate criminal liability, 787–791
accountability
of African Court, 19
attribution of, 287–288
of ICC, 206–207, 215, 678, 699, 743, 841
justice-peace sequencing and, 141–146
on non-corporate associations, 287–288
under Rome Statute, 24
in Transitional Justice Policy Framework, 153–154
as normative issue, 155
traditional justice and reconciliation mechanisms, 159
accused, right to legal/factual nature of accusations, 694–696
Achille Lauro incident, 396
ACHPR. See African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights
ACHR. See African Court of Human Rights
ACJ. See African Court of Justice
ACJHPR. See African Court for Justice and Human and People’s Rights
Action Plan on Drug Control, 363
active bribery, 482–483
acts of aggression, 324–334
annexation as, 327–328
attack against state’s armed forces, 329–330
blockades, 329
bombardment, 328–329
under Constitutive Act of the African Union, 327
declaration of war, 324
definition of, 322
dispersion of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, 332–334
intentionally wrongful use of state’s armed forces, 330–331
under international law, 324–325
invasion or attack, 327–328
military occupation, 327–328
Montreaux process, 333
under Non-Aggression and Common Defence Pact, 330–331
use of armed forces, 326–327
use of state territory for aggressive acts against another state, 331–332
use of weapons, 328–329
actus reus, 265, 375
criminal liability requirements, 762, 776
ad hoc courts and tribunals, 71, 83, 104. See also International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda; International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia; Special Court for Sierra Leone
aiding and abetting in, 767–768
right to fair trials in, 686–687, 691–692
Additional Protocol I, 442, 455–460, 465. See also mercenarism
Additional Protocol II, 442
Adigun, Jacob, 493–494
adjudicated facts, 692–693
administrative law, 1035–1053
historical context for, 1036–1040
legal framework for, 1036–1040
OAU and, 1035–1036
Administrative Tribunal of the Organization of American States (OASAT), 1048
AfDBAT. See African Development Bank Administrative Tribunal
Afghanistan, terrorism in, 430
AFISMA. See African-led International Support Mission to Mali
Africa. See also African States; colonialism; Sub-Saharan Africa; toxic colonialism; specific courts
atrocity crimes in, 93–94
democratic governance deficit in, 147
Heads of State in, 136–137
immunity for, 283–284
ICC relationship with, 62, 88–95
ACC influenced by, 203–208
innovations in criminal jurisdiction, 91–95
national endorsement of, 91
OTP activities, 88, 113, 130
support for, 178–179
undermining of, 13–14, 104–105
ICL in, 177–178
international crimes in, 74–82, 92–93
legal context for, 62–63
mercenarism in, resurgence of, 450–455
Model Anti-Terrorism Law, 417–418, 420, 431–432, 447
regional human rights in, 66
regional human rights law in, 66
self-determination in, as historical legacy, 214, 217
terrorist massacres in, 311–312 See also specific countries
transnational crimes in, 92–93
African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, 41, 81, 251, 338, 620. See also unconstitutional change of government
Preamble of, 620
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 2–4, 77, 424–425
liberation and self-determination struggles and, 440
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, 11, 25, 162
terrorism under, 424–425
liberation and self-determination struggles and, 440
African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 3–5, 100
ACHPR and, 984–985
criminal law section and, 1006–1007
as agent of ICL, 1006–1007
as enforcement agent, 1005–1006
human rights and, 998–1005
as investigators, 1005
victim’s justice through, 1006–1007
reparation through, 172
terrorism and, 428
truth seeking and, 171
violence management and, 122
African Convention on Human Rights, 66
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 427–428
African Court for Justice and Human and People’s Rights (ACJHPR). See also African Criminal Court; aggression; civil society organizations; complementarity; criminal law section; human rights; money laundering; “one court” concept
accountability of, 19
adjudicative resources, 1089–1091
adoption of Malabo Protocol, cost implications of, 1061–1064
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 2–4
African Criminal Chamber in, 75
for transnational crimes, 340–361
amnesties and, 115
appellate jurisdiction, 12–13
applicable lessons from, 1070–1072
atrocity crimes and, 93–94
AU assessment of, 1096–1100
budget for, 42–43
complementarity in, 46–48
positive, 98–100, 344
primacy compared to, 665
Defence Office, 680–681, 685, 710, 1068–1070
establishment of, 6–11, 83–84, 1057–1058
financing of, 42–43, 1072–1073
function and purpose of, 1
future challenges of, 42–51, 100–105
access to court, 50–51
civil society organizational involvement, 49–50
commitment of African States, 44–45
of criminal chambers, practicality of, 100–102
drafting issues, 49–50
human resources issues, 43–44
inadequate funding issues, 42–43, 103–104
infrastructure limitations, 43–44
lack of infrastructure, 43–44
political will to prosecute, lack of, 102–103
prosecutorial independence as, 45–46
general affairs section, 1, 11, 24–25
human and people’s rights section, 11–12, 25–26, 682, 959–960
criminal law section and, 1008–1012
ratione personae, 1011–1012
ICC and, 2, 62, 95–100
legal relationship with, 7–9, 88–95
ICJ compared to, 1024–1028
innovations in criminal jurisdiction of, 91–95
international crimes in, expansion of, 91–92, 1085–1086, 1088–1089
international criminal law section, 1, 11–12, 1081–1082
Detention Management Unit, 1066–1067
jurisdiction of, 12
prosecutorial independence, 45–46
Victims and Witness Unit, 1066–1067
investigative resources for, 1087–1088
judges in, 16
jurisdiction, 18, 1023–1028
for crimes against humanity, 87
for genocide, 87
of international criminal law section, 12
over range of crimes, 37–39
ratione loci, 972–973
ratione temporis, 972–973
for transnational crimes, 92–93, 106, 356–358
for war crimes, 87
legal relationship with ICC, 7–9
mercenarism in, 454–455
Merger Project, 1061–1064
OTP, 88, 113, 130, 1067–1068
PALU and, 90, 1104–1105
PCIJ compared to, 93–94, 1024–1028
President/Presidency of, 976, 1060–1061, 1064–1066
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, 260, 1028–1030 See also Malabo Protocol
Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, 1030–1034
public defender model for, 94–95
purpose and function of, 1
RECS and, 1104
Registry in, 708, 1066–1067
resource needs for, 1070–1072
retributive justice through, 171–172
SCSL compared to, 1096–1097
staff and staffing for, 1059, 1091–1096, 1098
interpreters, 1095
Statute of, 177–178, 190–195, 743–747 See also corporate criminal liability; liability; specific modes of liability
modes of liability under, 743–747
multiple modes of liability under, 759–760
Statute of e, Article 28N, 757–759, 766–781
structure of, 11–13, 1064–1070
Vice President/Vice Presidency, 976, 1060–1061
African Court of Human Rights (ACHR), 5
ACJ merger with, 6
African Court of Justice (ACJ), 6
ACHPR merger with, 6
Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice, 260
African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)
consolidation of, 983–986
execution of judgments, 980–982
expansion of, 986–988
human rights machinery in, strengthening of, 986–987
judges on, 976–977, 987
jurisdiction of, 967–969, 971–973
limitations of, 967–969, 971–973
treaties within, 977
legal aid in, 982–983
limitations of, 967–969, 971–973
monitoring of judgments, 980–982
ratione personae, 971
remedies for, 980
reparations through, 172, 980
standing issues for, 969–971
submission of cases, limitations on, 978–979
strengthening of, 983–986
structure of, 976–977
African Court on Human and People’s Rights (ACHPR)
African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 984–985
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and People’s Rights, development of, 965–966
African Criminal Chamber, of ACJHPR, 75. See also drug trafficking
for transnational crimes, 340–361
African Criminal Court (ACC). See also African Court for Justice and Human and People’s Rights; Article 46C; international crimes; Malabo Protocol; transnational crimes; unconstitutional change of government
African Peace and Security Architecture and, 208–212
classification of crimes in, 236–254
legal context for, 236–238
concurrent jurisdiction of, with ICC
complementarity and, 190–195
conflicting obligations for, 186–190
scope of, 181–186, 196–197
state cooperation with, 186–190
statutes as influence, 187
development of, 82
emancipatory potential of, 198–199
expanded jurisdiction of, 216
ICC as influence on, 203–208
corporate criminal liability and, 796–805
ICL and, 218
international law through, 842 See also automatic deferral
for corruption, 840–841
for ICC crimes, 841–842
jurisdiction over Rome Statute, 841
for non-ICC crimes, 839–841
jurisdiction of, 227, 794
legalism and, 199–203, 208
politics of, 198–199, 208–219
democratic, 214–217
instrumentalization of, 212–214
re-envisioning of, 217–219
statutes of, 187
African Development Bank, 1037
African Development Bank Administrative Tribunal (AfDBAT), 1048
African Ecologies of Justice, 22
African ecosystems, 22
African Governance Architecture (AGA), 19–20, 124–125, 173–174
African Human Rights Charter, 25
African Mission in Burundi (AMIB), 124
African Mission in Sudan (AMIS), 124
African Model Anti-Terrorism Law (2011) (AU), 417–418, 420, 431–432, 447
African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Pelindaba), 272
African States
ACHPR in, limited establishment of, 5
commitment of regional courts, 44–45
cooperation among, 730–731
crimes against humanity in, 77–78
drug trafficking in, 375–378 See also specific countries
enhancement of human security in, 75–82
human rights in, 3
OAU, 4–5
regional, 66
regional laws for, 66
UN Seminar on the Creation of Regional Commissions on Human Rights, 3
underfunding of institutions for, 103–104
ICC and, 62, 88–95
undermining of, 13–14, 104–105
international crimes in, 75–82, 92–93
legal duty of, 75–82
non-cooperation in, 730–731
PMSCs in, 476
rule of law in, 40–41
terrorism in, scope of, 411
UCG in, 40–41, 338
African Transitional Justice Policy Framework (ATJF), 112–113, 117–118
Malabo Protocol and, 119
African Union (AU). See also African Court for Justice and Human and People’s Rights; Constitutive Act; Transitional Justice Policy Framework
ACJ and, 6
ACJHPR assessment by, 1096–1100
Action Plan on Drug Control, 363
AFISMA, 124
African Charter on Democracy, Elections, and Governance and, 41, 81
AGA and, 19–20, 124–125, 173–174
constitutionalism, 174
AMISEC, 124
ASP, 107
ATJF and, 112–113, 117–118
Malabo Protocol and, 119
AUFD, 125–126, 139–140
AUPOW, 21
budget of, 42–43
Convention on Cross-Border Co-operation, 547
Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, 508–509
corruption and, official response to, 478
counter-terrorism developments, 417–419
African Model Anti-Terrorism Law, 417–418, 420, 431–432, 447
Plan of Action on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa, 418–419
Decision on the Abuse of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction, 623
General Affairs Section, 959–960
ICC and, 62–63
tension with, 851–853
International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 455–460
judicial bodies in, development of, 1078–1080
MAES, 124
Malabo Protocol and, 1–2
MINUSCA, 124
MIOC, 124
MISCA, 124
Non-Aggression and Common Defence Pact, 330–331
OAU replaced by, 79
Panel of the Wise, 117
PCRD, 174–176
peacekeeping missions through, 123–124
Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, 259–260, 449–450 See also mercenarism
limitations of, 468–469
loopholes in, 469–473
positive aspects of, 469–473
PSC of, 80, 121
institutional reform, 172
management of violence through, 122–126
referral authority of, 133–134
reorganization of, 1076
restorative justice through, 172
retributive justice through, 171–172
staff members, 1035–1039, 1043–1046, 1053
STC and, 10
transitional justice architecture, 171–176
constitutionalism, 174
institutional reform, 172
judicial reforms, 174
Malabo Protocol as influence on, 176
reconciliation processes, 174–176
security sector reform, 174
UCG and, 39–41, 622
under Constitutive Act, 40–41
UNAMID Hybrid Force, 124
universal jurisdiction and, 86–88
war crimes and, 7–9
African Union Administrative Tribunal (AUAT), 1036. See also administrative law
appellate jurisdiction for, 1040–1053
applicable law for, 1047–1050
scope of, 1043–1047
non-suspensive effect of decisions, 1051–1053
procedural matters, 1050–1053
binding force, 1050–1051
enforcement measures, 1050–1051
for remedies and compensation, 1051
provisional measures, availability of, 1051–1053
unequal access to court issues, 1040–1043
ICJ response to, 1040–1043
African Union High-Level Panel on Darfur (AUPD), 125–126, 139–140
African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), 124
African Union Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), 124
African-led International Support Mission to Mali (AFISMA), 124
AGA. See African Governance Architecture
aggression, as crime. See also acts of aggression
under Charter of the United Nations, 322–324
under Constitutive Act of the African Union, 279–280, 319–320, 322–324
definition of, 315–316, 320–324
acts of aggression, 322
planning, preparation, initiation or execution in, 321
for purpose of statute, 321
for human security, as protected value, 320
in ICC, 315
under international criminal jurisdiction, 87
international criminal liability for, 318
jurisdiction over, 315–319
under Malabo Protocol, 169–178, 239–246, 258, 279–282, 314–335
in Nuremberg trials, 314–316
by organizations, 316–319
under Rome Statute, 279–280, 315, 322–324, 909
by state military action, 316–319
under Tokyo Charter, 316
in Tokyo Tribunal, 314–315
Agreement for the Establishment of the African Risk Capacity Agency, 1077
aiding and abetting, 766–770
Akande, Dapo, 34–35
Algeria
civil war in, 411
drug trafficking laws in, 380
Islamic Salvation Front in, 411–412
terrorism in, 411
alibi, 919–920
American Convention on Human Rights, 134, 534
American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, 65
AMIB. See African Mission in Burundi
AMIS. See African Mission in Sudan
AMISEC. See AU Mission for Support to the Elections in the Comoros
AMISOM. See African Union Mission in Somalia
amnesties, 136, 142–143
African Court and, 115
invalidation of, 136, 143, 159, 205–206
in Uganda law, 932
for war crimes, 134, 683
Amnesty International, 562–563, 1117
Amosu, Adesola, 493–494
Anghie, Antony, 217
Angola, 294
FNLA, 453, 473
human trafficking in, 538
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 592, 595, 600
Luanda Trial, 453
mercenarism in, 453, 460, 462–463
MPLA, 453, 473
UNITA, 467, 603–604
Annan, Kofi, 121, 125
annexation, as act of aggression, 327–328
anti-crime prevention, 842–843
apartheid
criminalization of, 77–79
as human rights issue, 66
appeals, right to, 13, 726–727
APSA. See African Union Peace and Security Architecture
Arab League, 138, 413–416
Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism 1998, 410
Arab Spring, 306
as UCG, 641
Argentina
Falklands War and, 142
“Full Stop Law” in, 134, 142
transition from dictatorship in, 116
transitional justice in, 141–143
armed forces
attacks on, 329–330
use of, 326–327
Armenian Genocide, 292
Arrest Warrant case, 31–32, 58–59, 855, 862
Article 28H, 468–474. See also mercenarism
Article 28H (Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union), 468–474
Article 46 A bis (Malabo Protocol), 29–36, 102, 211, 283–284, 317, 842–844, 850–865. See also aggression; automatic deferrals
anti-crime prevention, 842–843
AU-ICC tension, 851–853
doctrinal question over, 850–851
duties of state under, 849
flawed premise of, 843–844
ICJ and, 852
immunity provisions under, 851–864
doctrinal arguments on, 856–864
ratione materiae, 854–856, 860
ratione personae, 854–856, 860
scope of, 853–856
impunity under, 863–864
Article 46C, at ACC, 793–796, 834–835
asset recovery under, 825–826
attribution principles, 812–823
models of attribution, 812–815
command responsibility, 820
compensation under, 824
complementarity and, 827–831
complicity and, 820
corporate sanctions under, 824–827
crimes contemplated under, 806–812
derivative liability, 812–815
due diligence in, 813
identification model, 813–815
vicarious, 812–813, 821
enforcement challenges under, 831–834
entities contemplated under, 806–812
jurisdiction of, 806–812
non-compliance requirements under, removal of, 820
organizational model, 815–823
aggregation of knowledge in, 818–819
corporate knowledge in, 818–819
corporate personnel in, 821–823
international versions of, 821
nullum crimen sine lege principle in, 816
progressive, 823
rehabilitation under, 824
reparations under, 824
restitution under, 824
scope of, 806
Articles. See International Criminal Court; Malabo Protocol; Rome Statute; Versailles Treaty of 1919
Assembly of State Parties (ASP), 107, 139
cooperation and, 732
asset recovery
under Article 46C, 825–826
after corruption, 489–492, 502–503
conviction-based, 491–492
reparations and, in money laundering, 525–526
atrocity crimes
ACJHPR and, 93–94
in Africa, 93–94
corporate criminal liability for, 93–94
definition of, 795
by political groups, 286
in Sierra Leone, 60
under-enforcement of, 800
attack against state’s armed forces, as act of aggression, 329–330
attribution, of criminal legal responsibility, 748–749
under Article 46C, 812–823
models of attribution, 812–815
for corporations, 811
AU. See African Union
AU Electoral And Security Assistance Mission to the Comoros (MAES), 124
AU Military Observer Mission in the Comoros (MIOC), 124
AU Mission for Support to the Elections in the Comoros (AMISEC), 124
AU Panel of the Wise (AUPOW), 21
AUAT. See African Union Administrative Tribunal
AUPD. See African Union High-Level Panel on Darfur
AUPOW. See AU Panel of the Wise
Australia
corporate criminal liability in, 785–787
universal jurisdiction in, 58
aut dedere. See prosecute or extradite
aut judicare. See prosecute or extradite
authority. See persuasive authority
automatic deferrals, 842–849
immunity and, 842
Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa, 49, 428–429, 568–574, 576
Banda, Rupiah, 499
Banjul Charter, 5, 87, 100–101
banking systems. See international banking systems
Barriga, Stephan, 323
Barrow, Adama, 252
Basel Convention (1989), 564–574
al-Bashir, Omar Hassan Ahmed, 1–2, 60, 113, 200, 299, 859
crimes against humanity by, 948
genocide crimes by, 948
war crimes indictments against, 7–9, 88, 137–138, 966
Bassiouni, M. Cherif, 58
Baxi, Upendra, 218
Bedjaoui, Mohammed, 86–87
Belay, Netsanet, 858
Belgium
DRC proceedings against, 86
universal jurisdiction in, 58–59
Benin, 558–559
Bensouda, Fatou, 630
Beyani, Chaloka, 86–87
Bhojwani, Raj, 498
Bigombe, Betty, 115
binding force, of AUAT, 1050–1051
Bishop, Joel Prentiss, 405
blockades, as act of aggression, 329
Boelaert, Sonja, 86–87
Boko Haram, 296
corruption by, 493–494
recruitment of child soldiers, 302
terrorism by, 305, 307
bombardment, as act of aggression, 328–329
Boraine, Alex, 167–169
Botswana, 377
corporate criminal liability in, 783
human trafficking in, 543
bribery, 481–485
active, 482–483
OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, 483, 829
passive, 481–482
in private sector, 483–485
in public sector, 481–483
bricolage, 931
Broache, Michael, 114
burden sharing
complementarity and, 664–673, 679
global community interests in, 668
with ICC, 672–673
national community interests for, 668
positive, 676–679
prosecutorial discretion, 676–679
with RECs, 671–672
with national courts, 669–673
Burkina Faso, 541
Burundi
civil war in, 640–641
withdrawal from ICJ, 501
business organizations, other than corporations, corporate criminal liability for, 288–291
Bustamante, Rafael De, 86–87
Butare Four case, 287–288
CAL. See Coalition of African Lesbians
Camara, Fafré, 86–87
Cambodia Tribunal, 102
Canada
corporate criminal liability in, 291
crimes against humanity in, 291
universal jurisdiction in, 58
war crimes in, 291
Caribbean Court of Justice, 70, 839
Cassese, Antonio, 86–87
CEDAW. See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
Central African Republic, 541
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 592, 595
Chad. See also Habré, Hissène
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment and, 83
Charter of the International Military Tribunal, 908
Charter of the Military Tribunal for the Far East, 908. See also Tokyo Charter
Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 11
child soldiers, 295, 297
criminal defence for recruitment of, 918–920
through human trafficking, 551
in ISIS, 302
recruitment of, 302
children, under Transitional Justice Policy Framework, 161–162
Chile, transitional justice in, 143–144
Chiluba, Frederick, 499–500
civil society organizations (CSOs). See also non-governmental organizations; regional economic communities
ACJHPR and, 1102–1122
competing obligations in, 1119
domestic legal standards under, 1119
financial burdens under, 1122
harmonization of laws, 1119
opposition to immunity clause, 1112–1114
restricted access to, 1108–1109
ECOSOCC, 1106–1110
ICC established by, 1101–1103
involvement in regional courts, 49–50
Malabo Protocol and, 1102–1122
human rights mandate of, implications for, 1109–1111, 1115–1119
legal standards setting, 1111–1122
opposition to immunity clause in, 1112–1114
ratification of, campaigns for, 1110–1111
vaguely defined crimes under, 1115–1119
Rome Statute and, conflicts with, 1120
competing obligations, 1120–1121
domestic implementing legislation and, 1121
financial burdens under, 1122
overlapping jurisdictions, 1120–1121
civil wars
in Algeria, 411
in Burundi, 640–641
mercenarism during, 453
in Nigeria, 453
in Rwanda, 640–641
Clarke, Kamari, 22, 469
Coalition of African Lesbians (CAL), 1107
coherence initiatives, 154
Cole, Rowland J. V., 211
colonialism, in Africa. See also toxic colonialism
mercenarism influenced by, 450–455
self-determination struggles against, 66
command responsibility, 820
Commonwealth Secretariat Arbitral Tribunal (CSAT), 1048
communication of information, right to, 704–707
in ICC cases, 706–707
in ICTR, 706–707
in ICTY, 705–706
communication with counsel of choice, right to, 707–711
commutation of sentences, 942–943
Comoros, 538
human trafficking in, 538
compensation
under Article 46C, 824
through AUAT, 1051
competence, of ICC, 796–805
complementarity. See also positive complementarity
in abstracto, 659–660
in African Court, 46–48, 646–652
analysis of, 664–679
burden sharing with national courts, 669–673
ICC jurisprudence and, 663–664
legitimacy of, 672–673
primacy compared to, 665
under Article 46C, 827–831
burden sharing and, 664–673, 679
global community interests, 668
with ICC, 672–673
national community interests, 668
positive complementarity and, 676–679
prosecutorial discretion, 676–679
with RECs, 671–672
in concreto, 659–660
criminal law section and, human rights influenced by, 996–1005
under customary international law, 664–665
in DRC, 654–655
Extraordinary African Chambers in Senegal and, 670–671
gravity threshold for, 659–662, 675–676
hierarchical approach, 665
at ICC, 48, 73, 652–659
burden sharing and, 664–673
intent to shield, 675
jurisprudence of, 663–664
positive complementarity, 98–100
test for relevant activity, 673–674
unjustified delays, 675
jurisdiction and, as regulating principle, 96–98
last resort approach to, 665–666
legal analysis of, 645–664
in Libya, 657–659
in Lubanga case, 654–655, 662
in national courts, 664–665
ne bis in idem principle and, 190, 195, 650–652, 659–662
non bis in idem principle and, 650–652
in Ntaganda case, 662
proprio motu referrals, 676–677
under R2P doctrine, 664–665
RECs and, 647–648
burden sharing with, 671–672
in regional courts, 46–48
Rome Statute and, 47, 649–652, 664–665
in Al-Senussi case, 657–659
tests for, development of, 673–679
relevant activity as threshold inquiry, 673–674
unwillingness of courts to act, 674–675
in Transitional Justice Policy Framework, 159
UCG and, 670
complicity, 750–755
under Article 46C, 820
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), 115
concession system jurisdictions, 611
concurrent jurisdiction
with ACC
complementarity and, 190–195
conflicting obligations for, 186–190
scope of, 181–186, 196–197
state cooperation with, 186–190
statutes as influence, 187
defined, 186
with ICC
complementarity and, 190–195
conflicting obligations for, 186–190
scope of, 181–186, 196–197
state cooperation with, 186–190
statutes as influence, 187
confidentiality, 711, 724, 1001–1002
conflict diamonds, 595–596
Congo. See Democratic Republic of Congo
consent, 918–920
rape and, 919
constitutional immunity, 495
constitutionalism, 174
Constitutive Act (African Union), 24–25, 30, 148
acts of aggression under, 327
aggression as crime under, 279–280
human security under, 75–77
sanctity for human life under, 148–163
scope of, 171
steps against impunity under, 79–80
UCG under, 40–41
violence management under, 122
Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 508
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Torture Convention), 82–83, 111, 277–278
Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism, 248, 350
Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 765, 814
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1949), 532–533
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (SUA Convention), 396
Convention on Combating International Terrorism, 410, 413–416
Convention on Cross-Border Co-operation, 547
Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, 508–509
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 533–534
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Genocide Convention), 111, 261–264
grave breaches of, 111
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 533–534
Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 914
conviction-based asset recovery, 491–492
cooperation. See also non-cooperation
between ACC and ICC, through concurrent jurisdiction, 186–190
among African States, 730–731
under Amended (Malabo) Protocol, 512–520
between states and private actors, 521–525, 734–738
ASP and, 732
competing obligations as factor in, 731, 738–740
ICC and, 729–732, 738–740
importance of, 731–734
international, for prevention of human trafficking, 546–547
under Rome Statute, 731–732, 740
in SCSL, with national systems, 282–283
with state and private actors, in money laundering cases, 521–525
Transitional Justice Policy Framework initiatives, 154
coordination initiatives, 154
core crimes, 239–246
under Malabo Protocol, 261–282
penalties for, 930–931
sentencing for, 930–931
UCG, 626–630
corporate criminal liability, 26–29, 285, 313, 782–791. See also Article 46C; principal corporate criminal liability
accomplice, 787–791
for atrocity crimes, 93–94
in Australia, 785–787
in Botswana, 783
for business organizations other than corporations, 288–291
in Canada, 291
for clandestine military organizations, 292–304
corporate culture model, 785
corporate sanctions, 28
for La Cosa Nostra, 303–304
definition and scope of, 288–290, 782
for displacement of civilians, 298
under domestic legislation, 783–785
in Ethiopia, 783
extension of, 301–304
for genocide, 294–295
for human rights violations, 294–295
for human trafficking, 547–550
under ICC statutes, 27–28, 364–365
in ICTY, 298–299
ILC and, 804–805
for illicit exploitation of natural resources, 598
in ISIS, 301
in Kenya, 783
loopholes for, 288–291
in Malawi, 783
in Namibia, 783
at Nuremberg trials, 27, 285
organizational, 784–785
for political groups, 292–304
domestic criminal tribunals for, 298–301
international criminal tribunals for, 298–301
in Nazi Germany, 292–293
principal, 786–787
for religious groups, 292–302, 304–312
terrorism by, 304–311
respondeat superior and, 783
Rules of Procedure and Evidence and, 833–834
in Rwanda, 783
in SCSL, 299
for social and religious groups, 292–302
in South Africa, 783
in statelets, 300–301
Islamic State, 301
Palestinian Authority, 301
subsidiary, 754, 831–832
for torture, 294–295
transnational agreements over, 802–803, 807
in Zimbabwe, 783
corporate personnel, 821–823
corporate sanctions, 28, 824–827
under Article 46C, 824–827
corruption, 92–93, 177, 246–249
abuse of functions, 485–486
quality control provisions, 485
ACC and, 840–841
asset recovery and, 489–492, 502–503
conviction-based, 491–492
under AU Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, 508–509
AU response to, 478
by Boko Haram, 493–494
bribery, 481–485
active, 482–483
OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, 483
passive, 481–482
in private sector, 483–485
in public sector, 481–483
case studies, 496–500
Abacha case, 497–499
Chiluba case, 499–500
Obiang case, 496–497
definition of, 609
diversion of state assets, 487–488
in Equatorial Guinea, 496–497
FATF, 478, 481–482, 488–489, 500–501
future legal challenges, 503–504
global scope of, 477–480
grand, 492–493
illicit enrichment, 487
in ECtHR, 487
illicit exploitation of natural resources through, 608–609
immunity provisions, 501–502
constitutional, 495
jurisdiction limitations for, 494–495
investigations into, 489–492
evidence gathering in, 489–491
from whistle-blowers, 489–490
jurisdiction limitations for, 492–495
immunity provisions, 494–495
for international organizations, 494
by region, 493
for serious nature of acts, 492–494
money laundering as, 488–489
in Nigeria, 493–494, 497–499
offences, 480–489 See also specific offences
SDAC response to, 478, 480
secrecy and, 490
sentencing for, 489–492, 501–502
penalties in, 491–492
trading in influence, 486
influence peddlers, 486
under UNCAC, 349–350, 478, 484, 491, 493
UNGA response to, 478
in Zambia, 499–500
La Cosa Nostra (Mafia), 303–304
under Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, 303–304
cost of trials. See trials
Côte d’Ivoire, 561–562, 592
hazardous waste trafficking in, 561–562
illicit exploitation of natural resources, 592
UCG in, 628–630
Cotonou Agreement, 567–568
Council of Europe, 824–825
counseling, 765–766
instigation and, 766
Covenant of the League of Nations, 1029
CPA. See Comprehensive Peace Agreement
CRC. See Convention on the Rights of the Child
crime of aggression. See aggression
crimes against humanity
African Court of Justice and Human Rights
international criminal jurisdiction, 87
Malabo Protocol, 239–246, 275–279
in African States, 77–78
by al-Bashir, 948
in Canada, 291
Extraordinary African Chambers in Senegal, 84–85, 645, 670–671
in Guatemala, 117
under Rome Statute, 276–277
torture in, 243–244
Crimes Against Humanity Initiative, 804
criminal law section, of ACJHPR, 682, 959–960, 1007–1012
African Commission on Human and People’s Rights and, 1006–1007
as agent of ICL, 1006–1007
as enforcement agent, 1005–1006
human rights and, 998–1005
as investigators, 1005
victim’s justice through, 1006–1007
human and people’s rights section and, 1008–1012
human rights and, 996–1007
African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 998–1005
complementarity as influence on, 996–1005
criminalization of violations, 997–998
judicial dialogue between, 1012–1019
non-state actors and, 996–997
plural entities and, 1012–1013
legal fragmentation in, 1012–1013
systemic harmony within, 1007–1012
criminal liability. See liability
CSAT. See Commonwealth Secretariat Arbitral Tribunal
CSOs. See civil society organizations
culpability, 750, 752
cultural heritage, terrorist acts as damaging to, 415–416
customary international law
complementarity under, 664–665
immunity under, 33–34, 862–863
cyber attacks, 427
Dakar, Senegal
International Commission of Jurists in, 4
rule of law in, 4
Dar es Salaam, 4
Darfur, Sudan
AUPD, 125–126
DDPD, 141
UNAMID Hybrid Force, 124, 138
DDPD. See Doha Document of Peace for Darfur
de facto, 297, 668, 762, 817
de jure, 762
De Klerk, F. W., 113, 149–150
Decision on the Abuse of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction (AU), 623
Declaration against Corruption and Bribery in International Commercial Transactions (UNGA), 478
declaration of war, as act of aggression, 324
Declaration on a Code of Conduct for Inter-African Relations (OAU), 412
Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (UNGA) (1994), 414–415
decolonization, mercenarism and, 451
defence of person, 882–885
defence of property, 885–886
Defence Office, establishment of, 680–681, 685, 710, 1068–1070
defence exclusions, from terrorism, 445–447
defensive operations, 882, 916–917
deferrals. See automatic deferrals
delayed disclosure, 688–689
democratic governance deficits, 147
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
atrocity crimes in, 60
complementarity in, 654–655
human trafficking in, 538
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 592, 595, 597
pillaging in, 825
proceedings against Belgium, 86
universal jurisdiction in, 86
Denard, Bob, 463, 466–467
depredation, piracy and, 393–394
deprivation of liberty, 348
through terrorism, 425–426
derivative liability, 812–815
due diligence in, 813
identification model, 813–815
vicarious, 812–813, 821
detention
international, 944–945
piracy and, 393–394
presumption of innocence and, 693
Detention Management Unit, 1066–1067
deterrence. See also penalties; sentences
general, 586, 940
of hazardous waste trafficking, 585–589
specific, 586
deterrence theory, 587–588
Deya, Donald, 22, 200
Dicker, Richard, 201
differential participation model, 746, 748–755
diminished mental capacity, 876–878
al-Dine, Ansar, 311–312
direct enforcement systems, 58
ICL and, 61
disclosure of evidence, right to, 696–704
in ICC cases, 696–704
in ICTR, 696–704
in ICTY, 696–704
iura novit curia principle, 698
dispersion of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, 332–334
displacement of civilians, 298. See also refugees
corporate criminal liability for, 298
disruption of public services, through terrorism, 432–434
Dlamini, C. R. M., 3
Doe, Samuel, 641
dogs of war, 451
Doha Document of Peace for Darfur (DDPD), 141
domestic criminal tribunals, for corporate criminal liability, 298–301
domestic laws. See national laws
double jeopardy, prohibition against, 920
Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, 868–869, 882
Draft Comprehensive Terrorism Convention (UN), 410
DRC. See Democratic Republic of Congo
drug cultivation offences, 373–374
drug supply offences, 371–373
drug trafficking, 92–93, 177, 246–249
in African States, 375–378 See also specific countries
in Algeria, 380
in Botswana, 377
criminalization of, 378–379
definition of, 366
in domestic courts, 381–382, 385–386
global drug control and, changes in, 386
gravity threshold for, 364–365
international scope of, 362–363
jurisdiction over, 363–365, 386–387
in Action Plan on Drug Control, 363, 366
ECOWAS, 363
through ILCs, 364
in Sierra Leone, 363–364
in Kenya
laws against, 369
punishment for, 380–381
lawful actions, 369–370
in Liberia, 377
in Mauritius, laws against, 370
modes of responsibility for, 378–379
in Namibia, 373
in Nigeria, 341
controlled substances, 368
offences for, 370–374
actus reus, 375
drug cultivation, 373–374
drug supply, 371–373
inchoate, 378–379
mens rea, 373, 375
operationalization of, 384–386
possession, 375–378
precursor, 378
punishment for, 341–342, 379–383
purchase, 375–378
supply, 370–373
party liability for, 378–379
prosecution of, challenges in, 341, 383–386
positive complementarity, 383–384
rehabilitation and treatment for users, 383
through social re-integration, 383
under Rome Statute, 364
in Seychelles, 375
NDEA in, 384
in Sierra Leone, 375
jurisdiction over, 363–364
sources of law for, 69–70, 366–367
substances under control, 367–369
international classification systems for, 368
scheduling systems for, 367–368
in Swaziland, 382
in Trinidad and Tobago, 362
under UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 386
under UN Drug Trafficking Convention, 367–368, 370, 379–383
unlawful actions, 369–370
Du Plessis, Max, 44, 201
du Toit, Nick, 468
due diligence, 813
due process, 300, 727, 779–780, 786, 816
under international law, recognition of, 647, 745
nulla poena sine lege principle and, 773–774
nullum crimen sine lege principle and, 773–774
Dunér, Bertil, 633
duress, 887–898
duties of state, under Article 46 A bis, 849
early release, 944
East African Court of Justice, 839
ECCC. See Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC), 1106–1110
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 47, 97–98, 363
Court of Justice, 839
ECOSOCC. See Economic, Social and Cultural Council
ECOWAS. See Economic Community of West African States
ECtHR. See European Court of Human Rights
EEZ. See Exclusive Economic Zone
Egypt, terrorism in, 413
EITI. See Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
emergency. See public emergency
enforcement systems. See also direct enforcement systems; indirect enforcement systems
in AUAT, 1050–1051
for hazardous waste trafficking, 572–573
regional, 232, 572–578
for sentencing, 941–945
environmental heritage, terrorist damages to, 428–429
environmental protections, illicit exploitation of natural resources and, 612–615
EO. See Executive Outcomes
Equatorial Guinea, 468, 478
corruption in, 496–497
human trafficking in, 541
Erdemović, Dražen, 890–891
Etete, Dan, 607
Ethiopia, corporate criminal liability in, 783
EU. See European Union
European Convention on Human Rights, 534
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
fundamental rights protections in, 681–682
human rights cases in, 681–682, 1011
illicit enrichment as corruption, 487
Lagos Conference on Primacy of Law influenced by, 3
persuasiveness in case law in, 1015
public hearings in, 685
European Court of Justice, 839
European Union (EU)
human rights norms in, 66
regional human rights in, 66–67
regional human rights law in, 66–67
evidence gathering, in corruption cases, 489–491
evidentiary challenges, in money laundering cases, 520–525, 527
complex financial investigations, 520–521
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 397–398
Executive Outcomes (EO), 467
Expiry Law (Uruguay), 144
exploitation of natural resources. See natural resources
expressive condemnation, of hazardous waste trafficking, 583–585
expressivism, 940
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), 596
extradition, under Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 111
Extraordinary African Chambers (Senegal), 84–85, 645, 670–671
Habré and, 171–172, 670–671
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC), 702, 908
facilitation, 763
fact-finding missions, 998–999
factual awareness elements, 905–906
fair labeling, 750, 752–753
fair trials, right to, 685–689, 727–728
ad hoc tribunals and, 686–687, 691–692
adjudicated facts, 692–693
balancing tests for, 687
Defence Office, establishment of, 680–681, 685, 710
delayed disclosure in, 688–689
habeas corpus, 694–696
in ICC cases
right to communication of information in, 706–707
right to disclosure of evidence in, 696–704
Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 681, 728
ICTR and
presumption of innocence in, 690–691
right to communication of information in, 706–707
right to disclosure of evidence in, 696–704
ICTY and
presumption of innocence in, 690–691
right to communication of information in, 705–706
right to disclosure of evidence in, 696–704
minimum guarantees for, 694–727
non-derogable rights in, 694–695
presumption of innocence and, 689–694
detention and, 693
in ICTR, 690–691
in ICTY, 690–691
proof beyond reasonable doubt, 690
redactions and, 688–689
right to appeals, 13, 726–727
right to be informed of content of charges, 694
right to be tried in own presence, 712–713
right to communication of information, 704–707
in ICC cases, 706–707
in ICTR, 706–707
in ICTY, 705–706
right to communication with counsel of choice, 707–711
right to disclosure of evidence, 696–704
in ICC cases, 696–704
in ICTR, 696–704
in ICTY, 696–704
iura novit curia principle, 698
right to examination of witnesses, 723–725
right to freedom from self-incrimination, 725–726
right to interpreters, through free assistance, 725
right to legal representation, 714
in international criminal cases, 720–721
through legal aid provisions, 722–723
with legal assistance in cases of insufficient means, 719–723
right to legal/factual nature of accusations, 694–696
right to preparation of defence, 707–711
registries and, 708
right to public pronouncement of judgments, 726
right to self-representation, 714–717
right to silence, 725–726
right to speedy trial, 711–712
Rules of Procedure and Evidence for, in ICC, 681
witness anonymity and, 687–688
Falklands War, 142
FATF. See Financial Action Task Force
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), 35. See also Yugoslavia
Fenwick, Charles, 1032
Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 478, 481–482, 488–489, 500–501
money laundering and, 516, 524
financial investigations, of money laundering, 507
complex, 520–521
under International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 455–460
financing
of ACJHPR, 42–43, 1072–1073
criminal liability for, 764–765
of terrorism, 764–765
under UN Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 765, 814
fines, as penalties, 931
fitness to stand trial, 873, 875
FNLA. See National Liberation Front of Angola
Fofana, Moinina, 942–943
force majeure, 887
forced labor, human trafficking for, 534, 536–537
Ford, Stuart, 44
foreign fighters, 454, 461, 464–465, 471
foreign immunity, in national courts, 845–846
fragmentation, of ICL, 61, 105
France, universal jurisdiction in, 58
freedom. See liberty
FRY. See Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
“Full Stop Law” (Argentina), 134, 142
functional immunities. See ratione materiae
funding, of regional courts, 42–43, 103–104
G20, 494, 500
Gabon, 541
Gaddafi, Saif, 627–628, 656–657
Gambia, withdrawal from ICJ, 501
Gbadebo, Olugbenga, 493–494
Gbagbo, Laurent, 628–630
gender, in Transitional Justice Policy Framework, 161–162
general affairs section, of ACJHR, 1, 11, 24–25
general deterrence, 586, 940
general principles of law, 445–446, 571, 867, 869–870, 923
Geneva Conventions of (1948/1949), 23
Additional Protocol I, 442, 455–460, 465 See also mercenarism
Additional Protocol II, 442
criminal defences under, 903–904
genocide. See also Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
ACJHPR and, international criminal jurisdiction over, 87
actus reus, 265
Armenian Genocide, 292
by al-Bashir, 948
conventions, 65
corporate criminal liability for, 294–295
ICC statute against, 65
ICTR and, 242–243, 262–264
under Malabo Protocol, 239–246, 258, 261–267
rape as part of, 23, 265
in Rwanda, 184
sexual assault and violence as aspect of, 23, 265
Genocide Convention. See Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
geographies of justice, 59, 71, 199, 390–391, 402, 409, 493, 671, 768, 1086, 1102
Ghana, 543
Ghankay, Charles, 299
al-Ghannouchi, Rashid, 306
global drug control, 386
Global North, hazardous waste trafficking by, 569, 572
Global South
hazardous waste trafficking in, 555, 569, 572
international law in, 218
globalization, toxic colonialism influenced by, 557–558
MNCs and, 558
TNCs and, 558
Goudé, Charles Blé, 630
grand corruption, 492–493
grave crimes, 254
gravity threshold
for complementarity, 659–662, 675–676
for drug trafficking, 364–365
for transnational crimes, 345–349
criminal criteria in, 346–349
Greenpeace, 562–563
Guatemala
crimes against humanity in, 117
Historical Classification Commission in, 116–117
national reconciliation law in, 116–117
Guinea, Republic of, 4
Guinea-Bissau, 558–559
habeas corpus, 694–696, 1017
Habré, Hissène, 9, 14, 966
criminal prosecution of, 82–85
Extraordinary African Chambers and, 171–172, 670–671
torture under, 419, 949
Hague Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, 1029
Hamas, 306
Harding, Christopher, 287
harmonization of judgments, 692
hazardous wastes, trafficking in, 49, 177, 246–249. See also toxic colonialism
Amnesty International response to, 562–563
in Benin, 558–559
causes of, 556–558
in Côte d’Ivoire, 561–562
global increase in, 556–558
by Global North, 569, 572
global scope of, 553–556
in Global South, 555, 569, 572
Greenpeace response to, 562–563
in Guinea-Bissau, 558–559
in Nigeria, 560–561
OAU resolution on, 563–564, 568
prosecution of, 578–589
regional criminalization of, 578–589
through deterrence, 585–589
through enforcement, 572–573
expressive condemnation, 583–585
for Heads of States, 580
in IACtHR, 582, 585
as restorative justice, 581–583
as retributive justice, 579–581
regional enforcement against, 574–578
through criminalization, 572–573
interpretative challenges, 574–576
practical challenges, 577–578
regulation of, international legal framework for, 564–578
under Bamako Convention, 49, 428–429, 568–574, 576
under Basel Convention, 564–574
under Cotonou Agreement, 567–568
inadequacy of, 564–574
under Lomé Convention, 567
UNEP and, 558
through waste disposal contracts, 558–559
in Zimbabwe, 584
Heads of State, in Africa, 136–137
immunity for, 283–284, 843–844
from hazardous waste trafficking, 580
under Rome Statute, 1113
high seas piracy, 396–398
Historical Classification Commission, 116–117
Hoare, Mike, 466
Holá, Barbora, 937
Holmes, John, 664
Homicide Act (1957) (UK), 876–877
Honoré, Tony, 630
human and people’s rights section, of ACJHPR, 11–12, 25–26, 682, 959–960
criminal law section and, 1008–1012
ratione personae, 1011–1012
human rights
ACHR, 5
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 2–4, 77, 424–425
liberation and self-determination struggles and, 440
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 3–5, 100
in African states, 3
OAU, 4–5
UN Seminar on the Creation of Regional Commissions on Human Rights, 3
underfunding of institutions for, 103–104
American Convention on Human Rights, 134, 534
under apartheid, 66
Banjul Charter, 5, 87, 100–101
corporate criminal liability for violations of, 294–295
criminal law section and, 996–1007
African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 998–1005
complementarity as influence on, 996–1005
criminalization of violations, 997–998
judicial dialogue between, 1012–1019
through non-state actors, 996–997
plural entities and, 1012–1013
in ECtHR cases, 681–682, 1011
under ICCPR, 13
human rights law. See also international human rights law
development of, 64
domestic laws as influence on, 991–993
international, 63–68
International Bill of Rights, 67–69
international criminal tribunals created for, 64–65
NGOs for, 992
quasi-criminal jurisdiction of, 67
regional, 63–68
in Africa, 66
in the Americas, 65–66
enforcement of, 63–75
in EU, 66–67
UNGA establishment of courts systems for, 68
universal enforcement of, 63–75
Human Rights Strategy for Africa, 1019
Human Rights Watch, 135–136, 201
human security
in illicit exploitation of natural resources, 612–615
as protected value, 320
human trafficking, 92–93, 177, 246–249, 354, 551–552
in Angola, 538
under AU Convention on Cross-Border Co-operation, 547
in Botswana, 543
in Burkina Faso, 541
in Central African Republic, 541
in Comoros, 538
confiscation of criminal proceeds, 549
conscription of child soldiers through, 551
under Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 532–533
definition of, 535–539
demographics for, 529–530
in DRC, 538
elements of, 535–539
in Equatorial Guinea, 541
in Gabon, 541
in Ghana, 543
global scope of, 529–531
historical development of, 531–534
under ICCPR, 534
ICESCR and, 545
individual responsibility over, 547–551
corporate criminal liability, 547–550
resource issues, 548–549
under International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, 531
under International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, 532
under International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age, 532
under International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, 531–532
under international human rights law, 533–534, 542–543
under treaties and conventions, 533–534
in Kenya, 535–536, 541–542
in Lesotho, 543–544
in Liberia, 541–542
in Malawi, 541–542
in Mauritius, 543–544
modus operandi in, 541–542
in Mozambique, 543–544
by organized criminal groups, 541–542
under Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, 538–539
in Seychelles, 541–542, 544
in slavery and forced labor context, 534, 536–537
smuggling compared to, 538–539
in South Africa, 541, 543–544
state responsibility over, 539–547
through international cooperation, 546–547
observance of non-refoulement, 543–544
for prohibition and prosecution, 540
for protection of victims, 542–543
in Sub-Saharan Africa, 529
in Tanzania, 543
under Trafficking Protocol, 530
in Uganda, 543
under UNTOC, 530
in Zambia, 541–542, 544
IAC. See international armed conflict
IACtHR. See Inter-American Court of Human Rights
ICC. See International Criminal Court
ICCPR. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICD. See International Crimes Division
ICESCR. See International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
ICGLR. See International Conference on the Great Lakes Region
ICJ. See International Court of Justice
ICL. See international criminal law
ICRC. See International Committee of the Red Cross
ICTJ. See International Centre for Transitional Justice
ICTR. See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
ICTY. See International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
identification model, in Article 46C, 813–815
identification of victims, 953
IFAD. See International Fund for Agricultural Development
IHL. See international humanitarian law
IHRL. See international human rights law
ILC. See International Law Commission
illicit enrichment, 487
in ECtHR, 487
illicit exploitation, of natural resources, 177, 246–249, 617–618
in accession system jurisdictions, 611
in Angola, 592, 595, 600
in Central African Republic, 592, 595
in concession system jurisdictions, 611
conflict diamonds, 595–596
corporate criminal liability for, 598
through corruption, 608–609
in Côte d’Ivoire, 592
criminalization of, 591–597
definition of, 590
in DRC, 592, 595, 597
EITI and, 596
environmental protection compliance and, 612–615
human security issues, 612–615
ICC and, 598
ICGLR response to, 594, 615–617
in kleptocracies, 592
KPCS, 595–596, 615–616
in Liberia, 595, 607–608
in Libya, 612
natural resource certification mechanisms and, violations of, 615–617
ICGLR, 615–617
KPCS, 615–616
in Nigeria, 607
nullum crimen sine lege principle and, 596–597
without official state agreements, 610–612
through one-sided agreements, 609–610
pillage and, 591, 593–594
scope of, 590–595, 597–617
sub-offences in, 603–604
travaux préparatoires, 597
seriousness requirements for, 598–601
in Sierra Leone, 592, 595
in South Africa, 614
by state authorities, 606–608
in Tanzania, 614
in Uganda, 591
as violation of people’s sovereignty, 601–606
for indigenous peoples, 605–606
ILOAT. See Statute of the Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization
immunity
under Article 46 A bis, 851–864
doctrinal arguments on, 856–864
ratione materiae, 854–856, 860
ratione personae, 854–856, 860
scope of, 853–856
from corruption, 501–502
constitutional, 495
jurisdiction limitations for, 494–495
under customary international law, 33–34, 862–863
foreign, in national courts, 845–846
for Heads of State, 283–284, 843–844
from hazardous waste trafficking, 580
in ICJ, 31, 33–34
under Malabo Protocol, 2
Article 46Abis, 29–36
ratione materiae, 30–34
ratione personae, 30–34
temporary, 14, 253
in Nuremberg trials, 861
as procedural rule, 33
under Rome Statute, 738–739
for Heads of State, 1113
for senior state officials, 2, 30, 33
in Tokyo Tribunals, 861
from transnational crimes, 356–358
ratione materiae, 358
ratione personae, 358
impunity, 59
African Court attitude towards, 95–96
under Article 46 A bis, 863–864
under Constitutive Act, 79–80
ICC attitude towards, 95–96
IHL prohibitions on, 444–445
under Malabo Protocol, 95–96
prevention of, 60
under Rome Statute, 95–96
from terrorism, 444–445
in absentia trials, 712, 834, 928
in abstracto, 659–660
in concreto, 659–660
inchoate offences, for drug trafficking, 378–379
incitement, instigation and, 759–760
indictments
against al-Bashir, for war crimes, 7–9, 966
of Heads of State See specific leaders
indigence, 825
indigenous peoples, illicit exploitation of natural resources as violation of, 605–606
indirect enforcement systems, 58
ICL and, 61
indirect liability system, 230
influence peddlers, 486
innocence. See presumption of innocence
innovations
in jurisdiction of range of crimes, 37–39, 91–95
in regional courts, 23–26
instigation, incitement and, 350, 378, 759, 770–772
counseling and, 766
intent to shield, 675
intentionally wrongful use of state’s armed forces, as act of aggression, 330–331
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 134
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), 70, 134–135
hazardous waste trafficking in, 582
jurisprudence in, 142–143
Lagos Conference on Primacy of Law influenced by, 3
intergovernmental organizations, 5, 259, 970
International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic (1904), 531
international armed conflict (IAC), 244–245
war crimes and, 267
international banking systems, money laundering in, 523
International Bill of Rights, 67–69
International Centre for Transitional Justice (ICTJ), 152
International Commission of Jurists, 4, 1103–1104
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 112, 244, 270, 442
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), 594, 615–617
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) illicit exploitation, of natural resources, ICGLR response to, 594
International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 455–460
International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children (1921), 532
International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age (1933), 532
International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic (1910), 531–532
international cooperation, in ICL, 729–731
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
ACJHPR compared to, 1024–1028
Arrest Warrant case, 31–32, 58–59
Article 46 A bis and, 852
AUAT and, 1040–1043
Burundi withdrawal from, 501
Gambian withdrawal from, 501
immunity in, 31, 33–34
legal interest in political stability, 132–133
South African withdrawal from, 501
Statute of, 131
international courts. See also European Court of Human Rights; Inter-American Court of Human Rights; International Criminal Court
international crimes in, prosecution of, 57
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 13, 25
human trafficking under, 534
terrorism under, 424
UCG and, 633
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 545
international crimes, 227–236. See also transnational crimes
in ACJHPR, expansion of, 91–92, 1085–1086, 1088–1089
in Africa, 74–82, 92–93
in African States, 75–82
analytical framework for, 232–236
characteristics of, 227–228, 234
core crimes, 239–246
definition of, 795
delimitation of, 233
under ICL, 229
in international courts, prosecution of, 57
jurisdiction of, 37
under Malabo Protocol, 37–38, 238–246
partly international crimes, 249–252
in national courts, prosecution of, 57
nature of, 228–232
right to legal representation for, 720–721
under Rome Statute, 112
in Rwanda, 184
transnational crimes compared to, 229–230, 255–256
International Crimes Division (ICD), 932
International Criminal Court (ICC). See also Malabo Protocol; Rome Statute
accountability of, 206–207, 215, 678, 699, 743, 841
ACJHPR and, 2, 62, 95–100
legal relationship with, 7–9, 88–95
in Africa, 62, 88–95
ACC influenced by, 203–208
innovations in criminal jurisdiction, 91–95
national endorsement of, 91
OTP activities, 88, 113, 130
support for, 178–179
undermining of, 13–14, 104–105
African Court and, 2, 62, 95–100
shared goals towards impunity, 95–96
African States and, 62, 88–95
undermining of ICC by, 13–14, 104–105
aiding and abetting in, 767
Article 17 and, 97, 190, 192–195, 364–365
ASP, 107, 139
AU and, 62–63
tension with, 851–853
burden sharing with AC, 672–673
complementarity at, 48, 73, 652–659
burden sharing and, 664–673
intent to shield, 675
jurisprudence of, 663–664
positive, 98–100
test for relevant activity, 673–674
unjustified delays, 675
composition of, 57
concurrent jurisdiction of, with ACC
complementarity and, 190–195
conflicting obligations for, 186–190
scope of, 181–186, 196–197
state cooperation with, 186–190
statutes as influence, 187
cooperation within, 729–732, 738–740
corporate criminal liability under, 27–28
competence for, 796–805
as court of last resort, 682–683
crime of aggression in, 315
CSO establishment of, 1101–1103
future challenges for, 106–107
genocide statute of, 65
illicit exploitation of natural resources and, 598
international scope of, 59–63
interventions by
denunciations of, 207
negative repercussions of, 205–206
political selectivity of, 205
JCE in, 775–780
in Kenya, 90, 192, 205–206
in Libya, 189
Malabo Protocol and, 1–2, 23–24
undermining of ICC by, 13–14, 104–105
money laundering and, 505–507
investigations into, 524, 526
jurisdiction for, 514
national cooperation with, 186–190
non-cooperation in, among African States, 730–734
non-member states, 188
OTP, 88, 113, 130
piracy and, 401
racism of, 284
registry, 708
right to communication of information in, 706–707
right to disclosure of evidence in, 696–704
Rome Statute and, 14–15
scope of jurisdiction under, 182
Rules of Procedure and Evidence in, 681, 728
corporate criminal liability and, 833–834
reparations in, 951
sentencing by, 927–929
in Sudan, 88–90, 114, 116, 189
terrorism and, 410
TFV, 952, 955–956, 960–961
TFV and, 952
UCG and, 622, 626–627
in Uganda, 205–206
universality of, 215
UNSC and, 182
international criminal jurisdiction
for crimes against humanity, 87
for crimes of aggression, 87
for genocide, 87
for war crimes, 87
international criminal law (ICL). See also human rights law
ACC and, 218 See also automatic deferrals
in Africa, 177–178
African Commission on Human and People’s Rights as agent of, 1006–1007
cooperation factors in, 729–731
criminal liability under, 747–757, 766–781
aiding and abetting, 766–770
developmental frameworks for, 69–73
direct enforcement systems and, 61
expansion of, 71–73
fragmentation of, 61, 105
indirect enforcement systems and, 61
international crimes under, 229
in Malabo Protocol, 1077
mercenarism under, 449–450
in “one court” concept, 12–15
regionalism and, 105
sexual violence under, 23
Transitional Justice Policy Framework and, 170
transnational crimes under, 229
transnational criminal law compared to, 229–230
UCG under, 634–635
international criminal law section, of ACJHPR, 1, 11–12, 1081–1082
Detention Management Unit, 1066–1067
jurisdiction of, 12
prosecutorial independence, 45–46
Victims and Witness Unit, 1066–1067
international criminal liability, for crimes of aggression, 318
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
aiding and abetting in, 768–770
budget of, 43
creation of, 35, 57, 184
genocide and, 242–243, 262–264
jurisprudence in, 262–264
money laundering in, 521
presumption of innocence in, 690–691
right to communication of information in, 706–707
right to disclosure of evidence in, 696–704
sentencing at, 932–934, 942
witness anonymity in, 687–688
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
aiding and abetting in, 768–770
creation of, 35, 57
criminal defences in, 874–878, 913–916
money laundering in, 521
presumption of innocence in, 690–691
right to communication of information in, 705–706
right to disclosure of evidence in, 696–704
state sovereignty approach in, 231
terrorism and, 409
war crimes and, 274
witness anonymity in, 687–688
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, sentencing at, 932, 942
international criminal tribunals. See also ad hoc courts and tribunals; specific tribunals
advantages of, 109
corporate criminal liability in, 298–301
criticism of, 109–110
genocide conventions and, 65
legal paradox of, 110–111
location of, 71
tribunal fatigue, 72
international detention, 944–945
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 1042
international human rights, 63–68
International Bill of Rights and, 67–69
international criminal law and, 69–73
regionalization lessons from, 69–73
under Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 65–66
international human rights law (IHRL), 63–68. See also African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights; European Court of Human Rights; Inter-American Court of Human Rights
human trafficking under, 533–534, 542–543
under treaties and conventions, 533–534
ICL and, 990–995
beneficial relationship between, 990–994
historical development of, 991–993
negative relationship between, 994–995
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 134
international, 63–68
International Bill of Rights, 67–69
international criminal law and, 69–73
regionalization lessons from, 69–73
under Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 65–66
Lagos Conference on Primacy of Law and, 3
under Malabo Protocol, 17, 973–975
jurisdiction for, 974–975
regional, 63–68
in Africa, 66
African Convention on Human Rights, 66
American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, 65
in the Americas, 65–66
in EU, 66–67
OAU and, 4–5, 66
international humanitarian law (IHL)
criminal liability under, 743
lex specialis of, 442
mercenarism under, 449–450, 456–457, 461, 470
terrorism under, 410–411, 421
acts excluded from definition of, 441–445
impunity prohibitions, 444–445
liberation and self-determination and, 441
International Labour Organization, 1037
international law
through ACC, 842 See also automatic deferral
for corruption, 840–841
for ICC crimes, 841–842
jurisdiction over Rome Statute, 841
for non-ICC crimes, 839–841
customary, 33–34
complementarity under, 664–665
immunity under, 33–34, 862–863
Eurocentric origins of, 170
in Global South, 218
Nuremberg Tribunal judgments, 14–15
piracy in, 389–392
regional arrangements under, 838–839
terrorism under, 423–424
TWAIL, 801
International Law Commission (ILC), 28, 77–78
corporate criminal liability and, 804–805
criminal defences, consideration of, 868–870
on drug trafficking jurisdiction, 364
mercenarism and, 469
piracy and, 402
UNGA and, 232
International Maritime Organization, 397
International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 868
International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA), 124
interpreters
in ACJHPR, 1095
right to free assistance by, 725
interventions, by ICC
denunciations of, 207
negative repercussions of, 205–206
political selectivity of, 205
intimidation, through terrorism, 431–432
intoxication, as criminal defence, 878–881
involuntary, 880
limitations of, 880
voluntary, 879
investigative teams
for ACJHPR, 1087–1088
for corruption, 489–492
evidence gathering in, 489–491
whistle-blowers and, 489–490
modus operand for, 1003
for money laundering
as evidentiary challenge, 520–521
financial investigations, 507
by ICC, 524, 526
in U. S., 524
for transnational crimes, 359–360
Iran, politico-military organizations in, 293
Iraq, terrorism in, 308–309, 430
ISIS. See Islamic State of Iraq
Islamic Salvation Front, 411–412
Islamic State of Iraq (ISIS), 308–309
corporate criminal liability in, 301
mercenarism and, 471
recruitment of child soldiers in, 302
terrorism by, 305
iura novit curia principle, 698
Jackson, Robert, 285, 846–847
Jacobs, Dov, 35, 287
Jalloh, Charles, 23, 210
Jammeh, Yahya, 251, 637
joint criminal enterprise (JCE), 775–780
joint criminal liability, 772–781
conspiracy as, 774–775
in Nuremberg Charter, 774–775
in Tokyo Charter, 774–775
judges
in ACHPR, 976–977, 987
in ACJHPR, 16
judgments. See also public pronouncement of judgments
in ACHPR, execution of, 980–982
judicial reform, 174
juridical persons, 807, 836–837. See also legal persons
jurisdiction. See also African Court for Justice and Human and People’s Rights; concurrent jurisdiction; universal jurisdiction
of ACC, 227, 794
in accession systems, 611
of ACHPR, 967–969, 971–973
limitations of, 967–969, 971–973
treaties within, 977
of African Court, for range of crimes, 37–39
African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 967–969, 971–973
of appellate courts, 12–13
under Article 46C, 806–812
for AUAT, for appellate decisions, 1040–1053
applicable law for, 1047–1050
scope of, 1043–1047
complementarity as regulating principle, 96–98
in concession systems, 611
for corruption, limitations for, 492–495
immunity provisions, 494–495
for international organizations, 494
by region, 493
for serious nature of acts, 492–494
over crimes of aggression, 315–319
for drug trafficking, 363–365, 386–387
in Action Plan on Drug Control, 363, 366
ECOWAS, 363
through ILCs, 364
in Sierra Leone, 363–364
of Malabo Protocol, for human rights, 974–975
for money laundering, 512–520
application of preconditions, 518–520
for ICC, 514
inclusion in, 505–507
opinion juris, 513–514
scope of, 515–518
in “one court” concept, 18
over piracy, 391–392
limitations of, 396–398
universal, 403–404
ratione loci, 972–973, 1039
ratione personae, 30–34
ratione temporis, 972–973, 1039
of regional courts, 106
of Rome Statute, CSOs in conflict with, 1120–1121
over transnational crimes, 92–93, 106, 356–358
for ICC, 337
jurisprudence, 97, 155, 645, 659, 663–664. See also international criminal law; international law; national laws
codification of, 265
in IACtHR, 142–143
in ICTR, 262–264
rape acts and, 243
in regional courts, 67
jus ad bellum, 456–457, 461, 475
jus in bello, 456–457, 461, 465, 640
justice. See also geographies of justice; restorative justice; retributive justice; transitional justice
peace and, as secondary to, 112
peace sequencing and, 128–134
accountability and, 141–146
in Argentina, 141–143
in Chile, 143–144
in Mozambique, 144–145
in Namibia, 145
in Uruguay, 144
peace taking precedence over, 112
Kabuye, Madame Rose, 87
Kagame, Paul, 87
Karadzic, Radovan, 135, 716
Kariri, Jemima Njeri, 856
Katanga case, 700–701
Kenya
corporate criminal liability in, 783
drug trafficking in
laws against, 369
punishment for, 380–381
human trafficking in, 535–536, 541–542
ICC in, 90, 192, 205–206
money laundering in, 353
politico-military organizations in, 293
post-election violence in, 90
UCG in, 627
Kenyatta, Uhuru, 10–11, 90, 200, 627, 966
Kimberley Process (KPCS), 595–596, 615–616
Kioko, Ben, 86–87
Klein, Pierre, 86–87
kleptocracies, 592
Kony, Joseph, 115, 136–137. See also Lord’s Resistance Army
KPCS. See Kimberley Process
Kushayb, Ali, 137–138
Kyriakakis, Joanna, 27, 288
labor. See forced labor
Lagos Conference on Primacy of Law, 3
Lamony, Steven, 858
land mercenarism, 451
Latin America, UCG in, 40
Lauterpacht, Hersch, 1032
law. See administrative law; international human rights law; international humanitarian law; international law; national laws
“The Law of Lagos,” 66
lawyers. See legal representation
League of Nations
Covenant of the League of Nations, 1029
on piracy, definitions of, 405–406
terrorism and, 410
Lebanon. See Special Tribunal for Lebanon
legal aid
in ACHPR, 982–983
provisions for, right to, 722–723
legal assistance, right to, 719–723
legal counsel. See legal representation
legal duty, of African states, 75–82
legal infrastructure, 43–44
legal persons. See also Article 46C
attribution of criminal legal responsibility, 956
derivative, 822
organizational, 822
definition of, 807
in STL, 798–799
legal representation, right to, 714
communication with counsel of choice in, 707–711
in international criminal cases, 720–721
through legal aid provisions, 722–723
with legal assistance in cases of insufficient means, 719–723
right to preparation of defence in, 707–711
registries and, 708
through self-representation, 714–717
legalism, 199–203, 208
ACC and, 199–203
LEITI. See Liberian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
Lesotho, human trafficking in, 543–544
Lesotho High Court, 483
lex specialis, 351–352, 442
liability, criminal. See also corporate criminal liability; international criminal liability
actus reus requirements, 762, 776
under AU Statute, 743–747 See also corporate criminal liability; specific modes
Article 28N, 757–759, 766–781
multiple modes of liability under, 759–760
complicity, 750–755
counseling, 765–766
instigation and incitement and, 766
culpability and, 750, 752
defences to, 922–924
alibi as, 919–920
codification of, 870
consent as, 918–920
defence of person, 882–885
defence of property, 885–886
defensive operations, 882, 916–917
diminished mental capacity, 876–878
duress, 887–898
exclusion of, grounds for, 894
excuses in, 870
force majeure, 887
under Geneva Conventions, 903–904
in ICTY, 874–878, 913–916
ILC consideration, 868–870
intoxication as, 878–881
legal scope of, 866–870
under Malabo Protocol, 867
mental disease or defect, 872–878
military necessity, 911–912
mistakes of fact, 902–907
mistakes of law, 902–907
necessity, 898–902
non bis in idem principle, 650–651, 920–921
for recruitment of child soldiers, 918–920
reprisals and, 911, 913–916
in SCSL, 901, 918–920
self-defence as, 882, 916–917
sources of law for, 870–872
statute of limitations for, 922
superior orders, 907–910
tu quoque, 911–913
UNWCC, 868, 887–890, 911–912
in war crimes, 903, 905, 910–917
youth as, 921–922
expansion of, 743–744
facilitation, 763
fair labeling in, 750, 752–753
financing of, 764–765
of terrorism, 764–765
under UN Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 765
ICL approach, 747–757, 766–781
aiding and abetting, 766–770
under IHL, 743
instigation and incitement, 350, 378, 759, 770–772
counseling and, 766
joint, 772–781
conspiracy as, 774–775
JCE, 775–780
in Nuremberg Charter, 774–775
in Tokyo Charter, 774–775
mens rea requirements, 762, 776–777
modes of, 744
accessory, 747–760, 772–781
under AU Statute, 759–760
differential participation model, 746, 748–755
new, 760–766
principle, 747–760
unitary perpetrator model, 746–748, 750–755
modifications to, 743–744
nulla poena sine lege principle, 745, 773–774
nullum crimen sine lege principle, 745, 773–774
organizing and directing, 761–763
under Rome Statute, 755–757, 775
liberation and self-determination, as exclusive of terrorism, 439–441
under African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 440
under IHL, 441
Liberia, 377. See also Taylor, Charles
human trafficking in, 541–542
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 595, 607–608
money laundering in, 510–512
pillage in, 594
RUF in, 510–511
Liberian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (LEITI), 607–608
liberty. See also liberation and self-determination
deprivation of, 348
Libya
complementarity in, 657–659
ICC in, 189
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 612
politico-military organizations in, 293
UCG in, 627–628
Lieber Code of 1863, 911
life endangerment, from terrorism, 425–426
likelihood of criminal activity. See reasonable likelihood
Locke, John, 632
Lomé Convention, 567
Lomé Peace Agreement, 135
Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), 114–116, 136–137
terrorism by, 305
Luanda Trial, 453, 473
Lubanga, Thomas, 60, 102
Lubanga case, 102, 654–655, 662, 697, 700, 956–957
MAES. See AU Electoral and Security Assistance Mission to the Comoros
Mafia. See La Cosa Nostra
Malabo Protocol. See also civil society organizations; Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights
Amended Protocol, 512–520
cooperation between states and private actors, 521–525, 734–738
Article 1, 277–278 See also torture
Article 2, 121
Article 3, 250, 360
Article 4, 646
Article 5, 333–334, 540
Article 6, 17–18
Article 8 bis, 279–281 See also aggression
Article 16, 15
Article 17, 660, 976–977
Article 18, 49
Article 19A, 955
Article 20, 950–951
Article 22, 45–46, 360, 710
Section B, 957, 1066
Article 27, 980, 985, 1113
Article 28, 455–460, 469–473, 480–489, 512–520, 601–617, 780, 919, 921–922, 977, 1030–1031, 1115–1116
Section A, 23, 39, 169–178, 314, 388–389, 480, 488–489, 590–591, 623 See also acts of aggression; aggression; corruption; illicit exploitation; piracy; transnational crimes
Section B, 23, 241–242, 258, 262 See also genocide
Section C, 49, 241–242, 275–279, 550–551 See also crimes against humanity; human trafficking
Section D, 241–242, 258, 267–274 See also war crimes
Section E, 24, 250–252, 283, 619–621, 625–626 See also unconstitutional change of government
Section G, 250, 409, 421–447 See also Organization of African Unity; terrorism
Section I, 480–488, 498, 515–518 See also corruption; money laundering
Section J, 537, 550 See also human trafficking
Section L, 49, 428–429, 574–578, 589, 601–617 See also hazardous wastes
Section M, 169–178, 258, 279–282, 314–335 See also acts of aggression; aggression
Section N, 266, 436–437 See also terrorism
Article 29, 119–120, 128–129
Article 30, 401
Article 33, 130–134
Article 34, Section A, 119–120, 128–134
Article 43, 491, 525–526 See also sentences
Section A, 927–929
Article 44, 130–134
Article 45, 491, 525, 951–952 See also victims’ rights
Article 46, 356–358 See also Article 46 A bis; corporate criminal liability; transnational crimes
extension of, 301–304
rationae materiae, 30–34
ratione personae, 30–34
Section A, 494–495, 680–689, 694–727 See also fair trials; rights of accused
Section B, 37
Section C, 18–29, 210, 285–286, 288–291, 301–302, 483, 485, 494–495 See also corruption
Section D, 929
Section E, 49, 210, 495, 518–520 See also money laundering
Section F, 209, 212
Section H, 47, 97, 209, 646–652 See also complementarity
Section L, 212, 489–491, 734–738 See also cooperation
Section M, 548–549, 722, 824, 941, 955
Article 49, 130–132
Article 53, 112–113, 181, 185–186, 979, 1109
ATJF and, 119
AU and, 1–2
AU transitional justice architecture and, 176
core crimes under, 261–282 See also aggression; crimes against humanity; genocide; war crimes
cost implications of, 1061–1064
crime definitions under, 37, 238–254
content of, 238–239
crimes against humanity under, 239–246, 275–279
crimes of aggression under, 239–246, 279–282
criminal defences under, 867
establishment of, 1–2, 258
genocide under, 239–246, 258, 261–267
human rights under, 17, 973–975
jurisdiction for, 974–975
IAC under, 244–245
ICC and, 1–2, 23–24
undermining of, 13–14, 104–105
ICL component of, 1077
immunity under, 2
Article 46Abis, 29–36
for high-level officials under, 2, 30
temporary, 14, 253
impunity under, 95–96
international crimes under, 37–38, 238–246 See also aggression; crimes against humanity; genocide; war crimes
partly, 249–252
language of provisions, 17–18
legislative process of, 10–11
megacourt developed by, 989
mixed reception for, 1082–1085
NIAC under, 244–245
peace and justice sequencing through, 109–121
piracy definition under, 248
positive complementarity under, 98–100
public response to, 13–20
regional criminal courts and, 989–990
restorative justice and, 109
retributive justice and, 109
Rome Statute and, 23–24, 95–96
sexual assault and violence, 23
as transitional justice, 110–111
Transitional Justice Policy Framework for, 112–113
transnational crimes under, 92–93, 238–239, 246–249, 338
partly, 252–254
treaty architecture of, 258–261
Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, 259–260
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, 260
Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice, 260
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and People’s Rights, 258–259
UCG and, 41, 250–252
victims’ rights under, 948–950
war crimes under, 239–246, 267–274
Malawi, 541–542
corporate criminal liability in, 783
Mali, terrorism in, 430
Mamdani, Mahmood, 127
Mandela, Nelson, 149–150
Mann, Simon, 468
Maputo Protocol. See Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa
Marikana Massacre, 614
Mauritius, 370
human trafficking in, 543–544
May, Larry, 639–640
Mayardit, Salva Kiir, 113
Mbaye, Kèba, 4
Mbeki, Thabo, 127, 139
Mbozo’o, Efoua, 1038, 1040
memorialization standards, 160–161
mens rea, 351–352, 373, 375
for criminal liability, 762, 776–777
money laundering and, 515
STL definition of, 625
mental capacity. See diminished mental capacity
mental disease or defect, as defence, 872–878
mercenaries
definition, 449–450, 454–474
concerted acts of violence by, 466
direct participation by, 465
material compensation for, 464–465
membership in armed forces, 465
prerequisites for, 461–462
territorial residency requirements for, 464
EO, 467
foreign fighters as, 454, 461, 464–465, 471
under International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 455–460
as prisoners of war, 457
mercenarism, 80, 92–93, 177, 246–249, 338
in ACJHPR, 454–455
in acts of aggression, 332–334
in Angola, 453, 460, 462–463
colonialism as influence on, 450–455
under Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism, 248, 350
during decolonization period, 451
definition of, 449–450, 454–474
concerted acts of violence in, 466
direct participation in, 465
material compensation in, 464–465
membership in armed forces, 465
prerequisites for, 461–462
territorial residency requirements in, 464
dogs of war and, 451
under domestic law, 462
in Equatorial Guinea, 468
by foreign military actors, 454
under ICL, 449–450
under IHL, 449–450, 456–457, 461, 470
ILC and, 469
under International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 455–460
international regulatory framework for, 472
ISIS and, 471
jus ad bellum, 456–457, 461, 475
jus in bello, 456–457, 461, 465
land, 451
Luanda Trial, 453, 473
in Nigeria, 454
during Nigerian Civil War, 453
under OAU Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism, 350, 453
limitations with regards to definition of, 468–469
OAU on, 449
PMSC and, 451–452, 464–467, 471–472, 474–475
limitations and loopholes for, 469–473
recruitment for, 462–463
resurgence of, in Africa, 450–455 See also specific countries
under Rome Statute, 469
sea, 451
in Sierra Leone, 460, 467
soldiers of fortune and, 451
in South Africa, 467
under Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act, 462, 467
through UCG, 460
UN on, 449, 451–452
in Zaire, 460
military necessity, as criminal defence, 911–912
military occupation, as act of aggression, 327–328
military organizations
clandestine, 292–304
corporate criminal liability for, 292–304
Mills, Kurt, 201
Milosevic, Slobodan, 714–715
MINUSCA. See UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission to Central African Republic
MIOC. See AU Military Observer Mission in the Comoros
MISCA. See International Support Mission to the Central African Republic
mistakes of fact, as defencse, 902–907
mistakes of law, as criminal defence, 902–907
mitigating factors, 878
in sentencing, 877–878, 880, 893, 935–936, 941
MNCs. See multinational corporations
Mobutu, Sese Seko, 604
modus operandi
in human trafficking, 541–542
for investigators, 1003
Mohamed, Saira, 940
monarchies, UCG and, 632
money laundering, 92–93, 177, 246–249, 526–528. See also Taylor, Charles
asset recovery and reparations, 525–526
under AU Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, 508–509
corruption and, 488–489
criminalization of, 489
domestic, 508
as state practice, 513–514
definition of, 343
evidentiary challenges in, 520–525, 527
complex financial investigations, 520–521
cooperation with state and private actors, 521–525, 734–738
FATF response to, 516, 524
ICC and, 505–507
investigations by, 524, 526
jurisdiction of, 514
in ICTR, 521
in ICTY, 521
integration stage, 488
international banking system structure and, 523
investigations into
as evidentiary challenge, 520–521
financial, 507, 520–521
by ICC, 524, 526
in U. S., 524
jurisdiction over, 512–520
application of preconditions, 518–520
for ICC, 514
inclusion in, 505–507
opinion juris, 513–514
scope of, 515–518
in Kenya, 353
layering stage, 488
in Liberia, 510–512
mens rea requirements, 515
nullum crimen sine lege principle and, 506, 512–515, 519, 526–527
placement stage, 488
prosecution of, 507–512
under Rome Statute, 509–510, 513
in SCSL, 507, 510–512
Taylor case and, 526
under UNCAC, 508–509, 516
under UNTOC, 508–509, 516
under Vienna Convention, 508
Montreaux process, 333
Moynier, Gustav, 74–75
Mozambique
human trafficking in, 543–544
transitional justice in, 144–145
MPLA. See Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
Mtambo, Timothy, 1112–1113
Mulgrew, Roísín, 944
multinational corporations (MNCs), 558
Mumba, Florence, 685
Murungu, Chaha Bhoke, 856–858
Museveni, Yoweri, 114–115
Musila, Godfrey, 20–21
Muslim Brotherhood, 305–306
Mwanawasa, Levy, 499
Naidoo, Kumi, 562–563
Namibia
corporate criminal liability in, 783
drug trafficking in, 373
transitional justice in, 145
national courts
burden sharing with African Court, 669–673
complementarity in, 664–665
drug trafficking offences in, 381–382, 385–386
foreign immunity in, 845–846
international crimes in, prosecution of, 57
piracy in, 408
positive complementarity for, 98–100, 344
prosecution of third states in, 58
sovereignty of, 106
National Drugs Enforcement Agency (NDEA), 384
National Islamic Front, 305–306
national laws
corporate criminal liability under, 783–785
human rights law influenced by, 991–993
mercenarism under, 462
money laundering under, 508
transnational crimes under, 344–345
National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), 453, 473
national reconciliation laws, in Guatemala, 116–117
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), 467, 603–604
natural persons, under Article 46C, 793–796
natural resource certification mechanisms, 615–617
ICGLR, 615–617
KPCS, 615–616
natural resources. See also illicit exploitation
terrorism as damaging to, 427–428
Nazi Germany, 270
criminal actors in, 290–291
NDEA. See National Drugs Enforcement Agency
Ndombasi, Abdulayae Yerodia, 86
ne bis in idem principle, 190, 195
complementarity and, 650–652, 659–662
sentencing and, 944–945
necessity. See also military necessity
as criminal defence, 898–902
NGOs. See non-governmental organizations
NIAC. See non-international armed conflict
Nigeria
Boko Haram in, 296
Civil War in, 453
corruption in, 493–494, 497–499
drug trafficking in, 341
controlled substances, 368
of controlled substances, 368
hazardous waste trafficking in, 560–561
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 607
mercenarism in, 454
terrorist organizations in, 310–311
Nmehielle, Vincent, 94, 202
non bis in idem principle, 650–651, 920–921
complementarity and, 650–652
in criminal defences, 920–921
Non-Aggression and Common Defence Pact (AU), 330–331
non-compliance, under Article 46C, 820
non-cooperation, among African States, 730–734
non-derogable rights, 694–695
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 992
access to courts for, 50–51
non-interference, 122
non-international armed conflict (NIAC), 244–245, 443–444
non-intervention principles, 634–641
non-refoulement, in human trafficking, 543–544
non-state actors, 996–997
Ntaganda case, 662, 701
nulla poena sine lege principle, 745, 773–774, 931
due process and, 773–774
nullum crimen sine lege principle, 300, 745
in Article 46C, of ACC, 816
due process and, 773–774
illicit exploitation of natural resources, 596–597
money laundering and, 506, 512–515, 519, 526–527
Nuremberg Principles, Third Principle, 845–849
Nuremberg trials, 875–876. See also Charter of the International Military Tribunal
Charter of
Article 6, 908
Article 7, 846–847, 908
Article 8, 908
Article 29, 908
conspiracy in, 774–775
corporate criminal liability at, 27, 285
crime of aggression in, 314–316
immunity in, 861
international law at, 14–15
war as evil in, 642
OASAT. See Administrative Tribunal of the Organization of American States
OAU. See Organization of African Unity
Obiang, Teodoro, 478, 496–497, 503
OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, 483, 829
Office of the Prosecutor (OTP), 88, 113, 130, 1067–1068
O’Keefe, Roger, 86–87
Omotola, Shola, 625
“one court” concept, 15–23
ICL and, 12–15
individual criminal responsibility, 16, 18–19
jurisdiction of, 18
merging of legal divisions in, 15
state responsibilities in, 16, 18–19
as transitional justice mechanism, 20–23
Ongwen, Dominic, 204
opinion juris, 513–514
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement in Armed Conflict, 271–272
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), 138
Convention on Combating International Terrorism, 410, 413–416
Organization of African Unity (OAU)
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 2–4
AU as replacement of, 79
Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism, 248, 350, 453
limitations with regards to definition of, 468–469
Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, 410–419, 447–448
criminalization of terrorist acts, 415–416
definition of terrorist acts, 414–415
development of, 411–412
drafting of, 412–414
preamble, 414
Declaration on a Code of Conduct for Inter-African Relations, 412
hazardous waste trafficking resolution, 563–564, 568
human security motivations, 75–77
on mercenarism, 449
regional human rights and, 4–5, 66
response to violence, 122
state sovereignty and, 147–148
Statute of the Administrative Tribunal of the Organization of African Unity, 1045
UCG and, 40–41
organizational model
international versions of, 821
progressive, 823
organizational model, in Article 46C, 815–823
aggregation of knowledge in, 818–819
corporate knowledge in, 818–819
corporate personnel in, 821–823
international versions of, 821
nullum crimen sine lege principle in, 816
OTP. See Office of the Prosecutor
Ouguergouz, Fatsah, 985
Palestinian Authority, 301
Pan African Lawyers Union (PALU), 9, 128
ACJHPR and, 90, 1104–1105
terrorism recommendations for, 419–420
pan-African Doctrine, 211
Pan-African Parliament (PAP), 122
Panama Papers, 490, 504
Panel of the Wise, 117
PAP. See Pan-African Parliament
par in parem non habet imperium, 845–846
pardons, 942–943
partly international crimes, 249–252
partly transnational crimes, 252–254
passive bribery, 481–482
Patterson, David S., 1033
PCIJ. See Permanent Court of Justice
PCRD. See Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Development Policy Framework
peace. See also violence
justice as secondary to, 112
justice sequencing and, 128–134
accountability and, 141–146
in Argentina, 141–143
in Chile, 143–144
in Mozambique, 144–145
in Namibia, 145
in Uruguay, 144
legal interests in, 128–134
under Malabo Protocol
Article 29, 128–129
Article 33, 130–134
Article 34A, 128–134
Article 44, 130–134
Article 49, 130–132
prioritizing of, 134–146
in Sierra Leone, 135–136
in Sudan, 137–141
in Uganda, 136–137
Peace and Security Council (PSC), of AU, 80, 121
institutional reform, 172
management of violence through, 122–126
peace processes, in Transitional Justice Policy Framework, 157–158
peaceful protest, 1115–1116, 1118–1119
peaceful settlement of disputes, 172, 1026
peacekeeping missions, through AU, 123–124
penalties, 491–492. See also sentences
for core crimes, 930–931
fines as, 931
per argumentum a contrario, 637–638
Permanent Court of International Justice, 235
Permanent Court of Justice (PCIJ), 1032
ACJHPR compared to, 93–94, 1024–1028
personal immunity. See ratione personae
persons. See juridical persons; legal persons
persuasive authority, 373, 1014, 1018
in ECtHR, 1015
Peru, 134–135, 397–398
Peter, Chris Maina, 86–87
pillage, 593–594
in DRC, 825
in Liberia, 594
in Sierra Leone, 594
in Uganda, 591
Pinochet, Augusto, 143–144
piracy, 92–93, 177, 246–249
Achille Lauro incident, 396
definition of, 388–389, 391
by ILC, 407
for League of Nations, 405–406
EEZ and, 397–398
facilitating acts of, 402–403
high seas, 396–398
ICC and, 401
ILC and, 402, 407
inciting of, 402–403
International Maritime Organization and, 397
interpretation of, 403–408
jurisdiction over, 391–392
limitations of, 396–398
universal, 403–404
legal history of, under international law, 389–392
in national courts, 408
primary offences, 392–398
depredation, 393–394
detention, 393–394
illegal acts of violence, 393–394
private ends, 394–395, 404–408
“two ship rule,” 395–396
scope of, 388–389
Somalia and, 392, 399
under SUA Convention, 396
under UNCLOS, codification of, 391
voluntary participation in, 398–403
Plan of Action on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa (AU), 418–419
PMSC. See private military and security companies
political groups, corporate criminal liability for, 292–304
domestic criminal tribunals for, 298–301
international criminal tribunals for, 298–301
in Nazi Germany, 292–293
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 453, 473
positive complementarity, 62
burden sharing through, 676–679
in ICC, 98–100
legal scope of, 62
under Malabo Protocol, 98–100
for national courts, 98–100, 344
in prosecution of drug trafficking, 383–384
for regional courts, 98–100
under Rome Statute, 98–100
possession offences, for drug trafficking, 375–378
Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Development Policy Framework (PCRD), 174–176
precursor offences, for drug trafficking, 378
preparation of defence, right to, 707–711
registries and, 708
President/Presidency, of ACJHPR, 976, 1060–1061, 1064–1066
presumption of innocence, 689–694
detention and, 693
in ICTR, 690–691
in ICTY, 690–691
principal corporate criminal liability, 786–787
Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Fair Trial and Legal Assistance, 687–689, 691, 710–711
prisoners of war, 457
under Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 914
mercenaries as, 457
private ends, piracy and, 394–395, 404–408
private military and security companies (PMSC), 451–452, 464–467, 471–472
in African States, 476
limitations and loopholes for, 469–473
in U. S., 475
private sector, bribery in, 483–485
progressive organizational model, 823
Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act (1995) (South Africa), 149–150
proof beyond reasonable doubt, 690
property damage, terrorism and, 426–427
proportionality, requirements of, 896
proprio motu, 45, 676–677
prosecute or extradite (aut dedere or aut judicare)
under Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 111
UCG and, 635
protest. See peaceful protest
Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, 538–539
Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, 259–260, 449–450. See also mercenarism
Article 28H, 468–474
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, 260
Protocol on the African Investment Bank, 1077
Protocol on the Establishment of the African Monetary Fund, 1077
Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol), 1104
Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice, 260
Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (Sharm el Sheikh Protocol), 1030–1034
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons 2000 (Trafficking Protocol), 530
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and People’s Rights, 258–259
development of, 965–966
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, 11, 25, 162
PSC. See Peace and Security Council
public defender model, ACJHPR and, 94–95
public emergency, 414–416, 421–422, 633
through terrorism, 432, 434
public hearings, right to, 685–689
ECtHR on, 685
public perception influenced by, 686
public pronouncement of judgments, 726
public sector, bribery in, 481–483
purchase offences, for drug trafficking, 375–378
Al Qaeda, 297–298, 305–309
September 11th attacks and, 307, 434
quality control provisions, in bribery, 485
quasi-criminal jurisdiction, of human rights mechanism, 67
R2P doctrine. See responsibility to protect doctrine
racism, of ICC, 284
Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (US), 303–304
rape, 23, 265
consent and, 919
ratione loci, 972–973, 1039
ratione materiae (functional immunities), 30–34
Article 46 A bis, 854–856, 860
from prosecution of transnational crimes, 358
ratione personae compared to, 32
UCG and, 638
ratione personae (personal immunity), 30–34
ACHPR and, 971
African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 971
Article 46 A bis, 854–856, 860
human and people’s rights section, 1011–1012
rationae materiae compared to, 32
for transnational crimes, 358
UCG and, 638
ratione temporis, 972–973, 1039
reasonable likelihood, 426
rebellion. See right to rebel
reconciliation processes
AU and, 174–176
transitional justice and, 169
RECs. See regional economic communities
Red Cross. See International Committee of the Red Cross
redactions, in fair trials, 688–689
refugees, as result of terrorism, 311–312
regional courts. See also European Court of Human Rights; Inter-American Court of Human Rights; Malabo Protocol; specific courts
in Africa See also specific courts
legal context of, 62–63
legal duty of African states, 75–82
complementarity in, 46–48
Habré, Hissène and, 9, 14
ICC and, legal relationship with, 357
innovation in, 23–26
jurisdiction of, 106
key challenges for, 42–51
access to court, 50–51
civil society organizational involvement, 49–50
commitment of African States, 44–45
drafting issues, 49–50
human resources issues, 43–44
inadequate funding issues, 42–43, 103–104
lack of infrastructure, 43–44
prosecutorial independence as, 45–46
Malabo Protocol and, 989–990
positive complementarity for, 98–100, 344
recommendations for, 107
terrorism as crime in, 423–424
transnational crimes in, 258–261, 337–340
universal jurisdiction of, 86–88
regional economic communities (RECs), 9, 46, 174
ACJHPR and, 1104
complementarity and, 647–648
burden sharing with, 671–672
management of violence in, 124–125
Transitional Justice Policy Framework and, 154
regional human rights, 63–68
in Africa, 66
African Convention on Human Rights, 66
American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, 65
in the Americas, 65–66
in EU, 66–67
regional human rights law, 63–68
in Africa, 66
in the Americas, 65–66
enforcement of, 63–75
in EU, 66–67
UNGA establishment of courts systems for, 68
regionalism, ICL and, 105
registries
for defence, 708
for reparations, 957–961
Registry, for ACJHPR, 708, 1066–1067
Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act (1998) (South Africa), 462, 467
rehabilitation
of drug users, 383
through social re-integration, 383
as reparations, under Article 46C, 824
religious groups. See also specific religious groups and organizations
corporate criminal liability for, 304–312
terrorism by, 304–311
remedies
through ACHPR, 980
through AUAT, 1051
reparations, 172. See also fines
through ACHPR, 172, 980
under Article 46C, 824
asset recovery and, after money laundering, 525–526
implementation of, 958–961
institutional framework supportive of, 955–958
registry for, 957–961
rehabilitation as, under Article 46C, 824
in Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 951
standard-setting for, 160–161
through TFV, 952, 955–956, 960–961
reprisals, as defence, 911, 913–916
Republic of Guinea. See Guinea
resource conflicts, 93
respondeat superior, 783, 908
responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine, 664–665
restitution, under Article 46C, 824
restorative justice, 109
through AU, 172
for hazardous waste trafficking, 581–583
retributive justice, 109
through ACJHPR, 171–172
through AU, 171–172
for hazardous waste trafficking, 579–581
Revolutionary United Front (RUF), 510–511
Reydams, Luc, 287
right to appeals. See appeals
right to be informed of content of charges, 694
right to be tried in own presence, 712–713
right to communication of information. See communication of information, right to
right to communication with counsel of choice. See communication with counsel of choice
right to disclosure of evidence. See disclosure of evidence
right to legal representation. See legal representation
right to preparation of defence. See preparation of defence
right to rebel, UCG and, 630–634, 637
right to silence. See silence
rights of accused, 680–683. See also fair trials
equality before courts, 683–685
Robinson, Darryl, 753
Rome Conference, 94, 509–510, 794, 799, 804, 885
Rome Statute. See also liability
ACC jurisdiction over, 841
accountability under, 24
aiding and abetting under, 767
Article 5, 346–347
Article 6, 23, 513
Article 7, 513
Article 8 bis, 268–269, 315–319, 322–324, 513 See also aggression
Article 15, 281–282
Article 16, 89, 138–139, 622
Article 17, 47, 60, 96–97, 647–648
Article 18, 97
Article 19, 97
Article 27, 36, 843–845, 847, 856–859 See also immunity
Third Nuremberg Principle, 845–849
Article 28, 210
Article 31, 872–922 See also liability
Article 32, 902, 904–905
Article 33, 909–910
Article 53, 112–113
Article 67, 680–683 See also fair trials
Article 72, 736–737
Article 91, 736
Article 93, 736–737
Article 96, 736
Article 97, 737
Article 98, 736, 739
complementarity and, 47, 649–652, 664–665
crime of aggression under, 279–280, 315, 322–324, 909
crimes against humanity under, 276–277
criminal liability under, 755–757, 775
CSOs and, conflicts with, 1120
competing obligations, 1120–1121
domestic implementing legislation and, 1121
financial burdens under, 1122
overlapping jurisdictions, 1120–1121
drug trafficking under, 364
ICC and, 14–15
jurisdiction under, 182
immunity under, 738–739
for Heads of State, 1113
impunity under, 95–96
international cooperation under, 731–732, 740
international crimes under, 112
Malabo Protocol and, 23–24, 95–96
mercenarism under, 469
money laundering under, 509–510, 513
positive complementarity under, 98–100
sentencing under, 936, 938–942
UCG under, 624, 638–639
victims’ rights under, 953–955
Rouget, François Richard, 466–467
RUF. See Revolutionary United Front
rule of law
in African States, 40–41
in Dakar, 4
transitional justice and, 169
Rules of Procedure and Evidence, in ICC, 681, 728
corporate criminal liability and, 833–834
reparations in, 951
Ruto, William, 10–11
Rwanda. See also International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
atrocity crimes in, 60
civil war in, 640–641
corporate criminal liability in, 783
genocide in, 184
international crimes in, 184
politico-military organizations in, 293
sentencing in, 932–933
universal jurisdiction in, 86–88
SADC. See Southern African Development Community
Saland, Per, 880
sanctions
corporate, 28, 824–827
state non-compliance, 739, 981
Sankoh, Foday, 293–294, 299
Saudi Arabia, terrorism in, 305
Savimbi, Jonas, 294
Schabas, William, 207
Schramme, Jacques, 466
SCSL. See Special Court for Sierra Leone
sea mercenarism, 451
Security Council Resolution 1566 (2004), 424–425, 431
security sector reform, 174
self-defence, as legal defence, 882, 916–917
self-determination, 211, 410–411, 440, 451, 1119. See also liberation and self-determination
as African legacy, 214, 217
against colonialism, 66
exclusion of, under Malabo Protocol, 439–441
self-incrimination, right to freedom from, 725–726
self-representation, right to, 714–717
Senegal. See also Dakar; Habré, Hissène
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment and, 82
Extraordinary African Chamber, 84–85, 645
International Commission of Jurists in, 4
universal jurisdiction in, 58
senior state officials, immunity for, 2, 30, 33
sentences, sentencing and
through bricolage, 931
commutation of, 942–943
for core crimes, 930–931
for corruption, 489–492, 501–502
penalties in, 491–492
early release and, 944
enforcement of, 941–945
guidance for, 930–938
by ICC, 927–929
by ICTR, 932–934, 942
by ICTY, 932, 942
international detention and, 944–945
mitigating factors in, 877–878, 880, 893, 935–936, 941
ne bis in idem principle and, 944–945
nulla poena sine lege principle and, 931
pardoning of, 942–943
penalogical aspirations in, 941–945
penalties and, 930–938
reduction of, 942
under Rome Statute, 936, 938–942
in Rwanda, 932–933
scope of, 927–929
by SCSL, 927–929, 934, 942–943
in Uganda, 932
Al-Senussi, 627–628, 657–659
September 11th attacks, 307, 434
Sesay, Issa, 510–511
sexual assault, violence and, 878–879
genocidal context for, 23, 265
under ICL, 23
rape, 23
Seychelles, 375
human trafficking in, 541–542, 544
NDEA in, 384
al-Shabaab, 307
Sharm el Sheikh Protocol. See Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights
Shaw, Malcolm, 637–638
Shelton, Dinah, 64
Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 290–291
Sierra Leone. See also Special Court for Sierra Leone; Taylor, Charles
atrocity crimes in, 60
drug trafficking in, 375
jurisdiction over, 363–364
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 592, 595
Lomé Peace Agreement, 135
mercenarism in, 460, 467
pillage in, 594
prioritizing of peace in, 135–136
TRCs in, 149–150
silence, right to, 725–726
silent accomplice, 787–788
sine qua non, 38, 642
Sirleaf, Matiangai, 36
Situation in Kenya case, 627
slavery, human trafficking for, 534, 536–537
Smith, Peter, 499
smuggling, human trafficking compared to, 538–539
socioeconomic justice, in transitional justice, 164
soldiers, children as, 295, 297
soldiers of fortune, 451
Somalia, piracy and, 392, 399
South Africa
apartheid in, 66, 149–150
criminalization of, 77–79
corporate criminal liability in, 783
human trafficking in, 541, 543–544
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 614
Marikana Massacre in, 614
mercenarism in, 467
under Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act, 462, 467
Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, 149–150
terrorism laws in, 433–434
Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 149–150
withdrawal from ICJ, 501
Southern African Development Community (SADC), 478, 480
sovereignty
illicit exploitation of natural resources as violation of, 601–606
for indigenous peoples, 605–606
of national courts, 106
non-interference and, 122
of OAU, 147–148
state, 231
Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)
ACJHPR compared to, 1096–1097
cooperation with national systems, 282–283
corporate criminal liability in, 299
creation of, 57, 184
criminal defence in, 901, 918–920
funding of, 1070–1071
location of, 72
money laundering in, 507, 510–512
politico-military organizations and, 293–294
sentencing at, 927–929, 934, 942–943
terrorism and, 409, 422–423
witness anonymity in, 687–688
Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL), 409
legal persons in, 798–799
mens rea definition in, 625
UCG and, 625
witness anonymity in, 687–688
Specialized Technical Committee (STC), of AU, 10
speedy trials, right to, 711–712
staff members
for ACJHPR, 1059, 1091–1096, 1098
interpreters, 1095
of AU, 1035–1039, 1043–1046, 1053
state insurrections, from terrorism, 414–435
state non-compliance, for sanctions, 739, 981
state responsibility, for human trafficking, 539–547
through international cooperation, 546–547
non-refoulement and, 543–544
prohibition and prosecution of, 540
for protection of victims, 542–543
state sovereignty, 231
OAU and, 147–148
statelets, corporate criminal liability in, 300–301
Islamic State, 301
Palestinian Authority, 301
statute of limitations, for criminal defence, 922
Statute of the ACJHPR, 177–178, 190–195
Statute of the Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization (ILOAT), 1040–1041
Statute of the Administrative Tribunal of the Organization of African Unity, 1045
STC. See Specialized Technical Committee
STL. See Special Tribunal for Lebanon
SUA Convention. See Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation
Sub-Saharan Africa. See also specific countries
human trafficking in, 529
subsidiaries, corporate criminal liability for, 754, 831–832
Sudan. See also al-Bashir, Omar Hassan Ahmed; Darfur, Sudan
CPA in, 115
ICC in, 88–90, 114, 116, 189
National Islamic Front in, 305–306
politico-military organizations in, 293
White Army, 312
superior orders, as defence, 907–910
supply offences, for drug trafficking, 370–373
Swaziland, 382
Syria
politico-military organizations in, 293
terrorist organizations in, 309–310
Tanzania. See also Dar es Salaam
human trafficking in, 543
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 614
Taylor, Charles, 135, 299, 594, 604, 641, 1113
cost of trial of, 43
incarceration of, 942–943
lack of counsel for, 716–717
money laundering case against, 526
temporary immunity, 14, 253
terrorism, as crime, 92–93, 177, 250
Additional Protocol I and, 442
Additional Protocol II and, 442
in Africa, 311–312 See also specific countries
under African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 424–425
liberation and self-determination struggles and, 440
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and, 428
in Algeria, 411
Arab League on, 413, 415–416
Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism 1998, 410
AU counter-terrorism developments, 417–419
African Model Anti-Terrorism Law, 417–418, 420, 431–432, 447
Plan of Action on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa, 418–419
by Boko Haram, 305, 307
conventions and treaties on, 422–423
criminal liability for, 435–438
under Security Council Resolution 1566, 424–425, 431
cultural heritage and, 415–416
through cyber-attacks, 427
defence exclusions, 445–447
definition of, 304–305, 419–447
cultural heritage damages in, 429–430
damage to natural resources, 427–428
deprivation of liberty in, 425–426
environmental heritage damages in, 428–429
general damages in, 426–430
life endangerment in, 425–426
property damage in, 426–427
drafting history for, 419–421
in Egypt, 413
elements of, 419–447
financing of, 764–765
under UN Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 765, 814
under ICCPR, 424
ICTY and, 409
under IHL, 410–411, 421
acts excluded from definition of, 441–445
impunity prohibitions, 444–445
liberation and self-determination and, 441
intention as factor for, 430–435
through disruption of public services, 432–434
through intimidation, 431–432
state insurrections as result of, 414–435
under international law, 423–424
interpretation of, 421–423
in Iraq, 308–309, 430
by ISIS, 305
League of Nations and, 410
liberation and self-determination as exclusion from, 439–441
under African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 440
under IHL, 441
in Mali, 430
motive requirements for, 430–435
national criminalization of, 410
in Nigeria, 310–311
OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, 410–419, 447–448
criminalization of terrorist acts, 415–416
definition of terrorist acts, 414–415
development of, 411–412
drafting of, 412–414
preamble, 414
under OAU Declaration on a Code for Conduct for Inter-African Relations, 412
OIC Convention on Combating International Terrorism, 410, 413–416
PALU recommendations for, 419–420
public emergency as result of, 432, 434
purposes of, 430–435
by Al Qaeda, 305–309
September 11th attacks, 307, 434
refugee flows as result of, 311–312
under regional laws, 423–424
in Saudi Arabia, 305
scope of, 423–447
in African States, 411
SCSL and, 409, 422–423
September 11th attacks on U. S., 307, 434
in South Africa, laws for, 433–434
STL, 409
in Syria, 309–310
as transnational crime, 422–423
in Uganda, 305
under UN Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 765
UN Draft Comprehensive Terrorism Convention, 410
Terrorist Bombings Convention (1997), 438
Terrorist Financing Convention (1999), 431
TFV. See Trust Fund for Victims
Thiam, Doudou, 869, 888
Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL), 801
Tladi, Dire, 33
TNCs. See transnational corporations
Tojo, Hideki, 846
Tokyo Charter
conspiracy in, 774–775
crime of aggression under, 316 See also Charter of the Military Tribunal for the Far East
Tokyo Tribunal
Charter of, 846
crime of aggression in, 314–315
immunity in, 861
torture, 243–244
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 82–83, 111, 277–278
under Habré, 419, 949
Torture Convention. See Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment
toxic colonialism, in Africa, 555–564
economic globalization as influence on, 557–558
MNCs and, 558
TNCs and, 558
historical development of, 558–564
in Somalia, 559–560
trading in influence, as corruption, 486
influence peddlers, 486
traditional justice and reconciliation mechanisms, 158–161
accountability in, 159
institutional reforms through, 161
legal reforms, 161
memorialization standards for, 160–161
reparation standards for, 160–161
truth commissions, 158–161
trafficking. See drug trafficking; human trafficking
Trafficking Protocol. See Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons 2000
transitional justice. See also African Union
in Argentina, 141–143
ATJF, 112–113, 117–118
in Chile, 143–144
components of, 168
definition of, 22, 167–169
evolution of, 169
goals of, 155–156
competition between, 156
ICTJ, 152
Malabo Protocol as, 110–111
in Mozambique, 144–145
in Namibia, 145
“one court” system and, 20–23
promotional aspects of, 152–154
for inclusive participation, 152–153
for local and national ownership, 152–153
reconciliation in, 153–154
purposes of, 168
reconciliation and, 169
promotion of, 153–154
rule of law and, 169
sequencing in, 156
socioeconomic justice as part of, 164
in Uruguay, 144
in violence management context, 167
Transitional Justice Policy Framework (of AU), 126–128
accountability in, 153–154
as normative issue, 155
in traditional justice and reconciliation mechanisms, 159
coherence initiatives, 154
complementarity principle and, 159
content of, 151–163 See also traditional justice and reconciliation mechanisms
actors’ mechanisms, 162–163
children as factor in, 161–162
constitutive elements, 156–157
gender issues as factor in, 161–162
governance mechanisms, 162–163
peace-making processes, 157–158
cooperation initiatives, 154
coordination initiatives, 154
development of, 147–149
focus of, 151–163
ICL and, 170
long-term promise and prospects of, 163–165
normative issues in, 154–156
accountability, 155
objectives of, 149–150
principles and values of, 151–156
entrenchment of, 152–156
promotional aspects of, 152–154
for inclusive participation in transitional justice processes, 152–153
for local and national ownership, 152–153
of reconciliation, 153–154
RECs and, 154
responsibility in, 153–154
traditional justice and reconciliation mechanisms, 158–161
accountability in, 159
institutional reforms, 161
legal reforms, 161
memorialization standards, 160–161
reparation standards, 160–161
truth commissions, 158–161
transnational corporations (TNCs), 558
transnational crime agreements, 802–803, 807
transnational crimes, 227–236, 361. See also drug trafficking; mercenarism; terrorism; unconstitutional change of government
in Africa, 92–93
in African Criminal Chamber, 340–361
analytical framework for, 232–236
characteristics of, 227–228
corruption, 92–93, 177, 246–249
criminalization of, 344–345
defined, 225
under existing treaty regimes, 342–343
gravity threshold problem for, 345–349
criminal criteria in, 346–349
human trafficking, 92–93, 177, 246–249, 354
under ICL, 229
illicit exploitation of natural resources, 177, 246–249
immunity from prosecution, 356–358
ratione materiae, 358
ratione personae, 358
international crimes compared to, 229–230, 255–256
jurisdiction for, 92–93, 106, 356–358
ICC, 337
under Malabo Protocol, 92–93, 238–239, 246–249, 338
partly transnational crimes, 252–254
modes of responsibility, 349–352
lex specialis rule, 351–352
money laundering, 92–93, 177, 246–249
definition of, 343
in Kenya, 353
national laws and, 344–345
nature of, 228–232
piracy, 92–93, 177, 246–249
primary rules for, source of, 343–344
procedural issues, 358–361
investigations, 359–360
punishment of, 352–356
state practices for, 352–355
regional criminal courts for, 258–261, 337–340
under Rome Statute, 346–347
scope of, 336–337
suppression of, 342–343
terrorism as, 422–423
trafficking in hazardous wastes, 49, 177, 246–249
UCG as, 623
UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 386
transnational criminal law, 228–229
ICL compared to, 229–230
indirect liability system in, 230
Transparency International, 480
travaux préparatoires, 262, 323–324, 597
TRCs. See truth and reconciliation commissions
Treaty of Pelindaba. See African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty
trials. See also Nuremberg trials; Tokyo Tribunal
costs of, 43, 103–104
tribunal fatigue, 72
Trinidad and Tobago, 69–70
drug trafficking in, 362
Trust Fund for Victims (TFV), 952, 955–956, 960–961
truth and reconciliation commissions (TRCs), 149–150
Transitional Justice Policy Framework and, 158–161
tu quoque defence, 911–913
Turkey, politico-military organizations in, 293
Tutu, Desmond, 284
TWAIL. See Third World Approaches to International Law
“two ship rule,” in piracy, 395–396
US. See United States (US)
UCG. See unconstitutional change of government
Uganda
amnesty laws in, 932
High Court in, 114–116
human trafficking in, 543
ICC in, 205–206
ICD in, 932
illicit exploitation of natural resources in, 591
LRA, 114–116, 136–137
terrorism by, 305
pillage in, 591
sentencing in, 932
UPDA in, 114–115
Ugandan People’s Democratic Army (UPDA), 114–115
UK. See United Kingdom
ultimum remedium, 633–634
UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 386
UN Dispute Tribunal (UNDT). See United Nations
UN Draft Comprehensive Terrorism Convention, 410
UN Drug Trafficking Convention, 367–368, 370
UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission to Central African Republic (MINUSCA), 124
UN Seminar on the Creation of Regional Commissions on Human Rights, 3
UNAMID Hybrid Force. See United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur
UNAT. See United Nations
UNCAC. See United Nations
UNCLOS. See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
unconstitutional change of government (UCG), 39–41, 619–621
in African States, 40–41, 338
“Arab Spring” as, 641
AU and, 39–41, 622
Constitutive Act, 40–41
through civil strife, 640–641
complementarity and, 670
constituent elements of, 624–626
core crimes and, 626–630
in Côte d’Ivoire, 628–630
criminalization of, 621, 630–641
definition of, 625
establishment of special criminal chamber, 621–626
ICC response to, 622, 626–627
ICCPR and, 633
under ICL, 634–635
jus in bello, 640
in Kenya, 627
in Latin America, 40
in Libya, 627–628
Malabo Protocol and, 41, 250–252
through mercenarism, 460
in monarchies, 632
non-intervention principles and, 634–641
OAU and, 40–41
per argumentum a contrario, 637–638
prosecute or extradite for, 635
ratione materiae and, 638
ratione personae, 638
right to rebel and, 630–634, 637
under Rome Statute, 624, 638–639
static forms of, 625
STL and, 625
as transnational crime, 623
ultimum remedium, 633–634
universal jurisdiction for, 622–623
UNDT. See United Nations
UNEP. See United Nations
unequal access to court, AUAT and, 1040–1043
ICJ response to, 1040–1043
UNGA. See United Nations General Assembly
UNHCR. See United Nations
UNITA. See National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
unitary perpetrator model, 746–748, 750–755
United Kingdom (UK)
Falklands War, 142
Homicide Act, 876–877
United National Appeal Tribunal (UNAT). See United Nations
United Nations (UN). See also Special Court for Sierra Leone; United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; United Nations General Assembly
Charter of, 64
Article 2(1), 345, 536–537, 846
Article 24(2), 180
Article 25, 180
Article 53, 181
Article 103, 180–181
crime of aggression under, 322–324
Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 765, 814
Draft Comprehensive Terrorism Convention, 410
on mercenarism, 449, 451–452
MINUSCA, 124
Security Council Resolution 1566, 424–425, 431
UNAT, 1043
UNCAC, 349–350, 478, 484, 491, 493
money laundering, 508–509, 516
UNDT, 1043
UNEP, 558
UNHCR, 447
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 65–66
UNSC, 139–140, 180. See also concurrent jurisdiction
ICC and, 182
UNTOC, 508
human trafficking under, 530
money laundering, 508–509, 516
UNWCC, 868, 887–890, 911–912
United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID Hybrid Force), 124, 138
United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC). See United Nations
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 236
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). See United Nations
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 248, 343, 388–391
Articles, 389–390, 393
28, 388–389, 398–403
101, 388–389, 398–403
103, 398–400
105, 391, 404
codification of piracy under, 391
Peruvian response to, 397–398
primary offences, 392–398
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). See United Nations
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)
on corruption, official response to, 478
Declaration against Corruption and Bribery in International Commercial Transactions, 478
Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, 414–415
ILC and, 232
regional human rights court systems, 68
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). See United Nations
United Nations Security Council (UNSC). See United Nations
United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC). See United Nations
United States (US)
money laundering in, 524
PMSCs in, 475
Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, 303–304
September 11th attacks, 307, 434
War Crimes Act, 303
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 65–66
Preamble of, 631
universal jurisdiction, 58–59
abuse and misuse of, 85–88
AU and, 86–88
Decision on the Abuse of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction, 623
in DRC, 86
expansion of, 85–86
over piracy, 403–404
in Rwanda, 86–88
for UCG, 622–623
UNSC. See United Nations
UNTOC. See United Nations
UNWCC. See United Nations
UPDA. See Ugandan People’s Democratic Army
Uruguay
Expiry Law in, 144
transitional justice in, 144
use of state territory for aggressive acts against another state, as act of aggression, 331–332
use of weapons, as act of aggression, 328–329
van den Herik, Larissa, 829
Versailles Treaty of 1919, Article 227, 848
vicarious liability, 812–813, 821
Vice President/Vice Presidency, of ACJHPR, 976, 1060
Victims and Witness Unit, 1066–1067
victims’ rights. See also reparations
future prospects for, 961–962
historical reference to, 948–950
identification of victims, 953
international courts and tribunals and, 950
legal framework on, 950–955
under Malabo Protocol, 948–950
participation of victims and, 953–955
under Rome Statute, 953–955
TFV, 952, 955–956, 960–961
Victores, Óscar Humberto Mejía, 116
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1008
violence. See also sexual assault
management of, 121–128
African Commission of Human and Peoples Right, 122
by AU, 122–128
under Constitutive Act, 122
through peacekeeping missions, 123–124
through PSC, 122–126
RECs and, 124–125
transitional justice and, 167
OAU response to, 122
sexual assault and, 878–879
transitional justice and, 125–128
war crimes
ACJHPR, international criminal jurisdiction of, 87
amnesties for, 134, 683
AU and, 7–9
by al-Bashir, indictments against, 7–9, 88, 137–138
in Canada, 291
criminal defences for, 903, 905, 910–917
IAC and, 267
ICTY and, 274
under Malabo Protocol, 239–246, 267–274
pillage as, 591, 593–594
War Crimes Act (US), 303
wars. See civil wars
waste disposal contracts, 558–559
WBAT. See World Bank Administrative Tribunal
weapons of mass destruction, 244–245, 272, 417
Wet, Erika de, 1033
whistle-blowers, 489–490
White Army, 312
witnesses
anonymity of, 687–688
right to examination of, 723–725
World Bank, 1037
World Bank Administrative Tribunal (WBAT), 1044–1046
Wright, Quincy, 1032–1033
Yeo, Stanley, 874, 883, 898
youth, as defence, 921–922
Yugoslavia, the former, Human Rights Watch in, 135. See also International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
Zaire, mercenarism in, 460
Zambia
corruption in, 499–500
human trafficking in, 541–542, 544
Zerrougui, Leila, 297
Zimbabwe
corporate criminal liability in, 783
hazardous waste trafficking in, 584
politico-military organizations in, 293

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  • Index
  • Edited by Charles C. Jalloh, Florida International University, Kamari M. Clarke, University of California, Los Angeles, Vincent O. Nmehielle
  • Book: The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples' Rights in Context
  • Online publication: 02 May 2019
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108525343.046
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  • Index
  • Edited by Charles C. Jalloh, Florida International University, Kamari M. Clarke, University of California, Los Angeles, Vincent O. Nmehielle
  • Book: The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples' Rights in Context
  • Online publication: 02 May 2019
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108525343.046
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  • Index
  • Edited by Charles C. Jalloh, Florida International University, Kamari M. Clarke, University of California, Los Angeles, Vincent O. Nmehielle
  • Book: The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples' Rights in Context
  • Online publication: 02 May 2019
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108525343.046
Available formats
×