Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-n9wrp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-19T00:54:31.391Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys and related infections of pheasants and domestic fowl: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

Rajesh Chandra  and
Ashok Kumar
Rajesh Chandra
Affiliation:
Department of Veterinary Microbiology and
Ashok Kumar
Affiliation:
Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263145, U.S. Nagar, U.P., India
Get access

Abstract

Haemorrhagic enteritis (HE) of turkeys is an economically important viral disease of turkeys, not only because it causes high mortality and immunosuppression, but also due to increased slaughterhouse condemnations. The disease is characterized by haemorrhagic enteritis and necrosis of lymphoid cells and a proliferation of reticuloendothelial cells in the spleen. In marble spleen disease (MSD), in addition to splenic changes, pulmonary congestion and oedema are also seen. Whereas splenomegaly in chickens (SMC) is characterized by lesions in the spleen similar to those of HE and the pulmonary lesions of MSD. The causative agents of HE of turkeys, MSD of pheasants and SMC are serologically indistinguishable group II Aviadenoviruses. All the three viruses can be propagated in lymphoblastoid cell lines derived from Marek's disease virus induced lymphoma in turkeys viz. MDTC-RP-16 and MDTC-RP19. The infection can be diagnosed by isolation and characterization of aetiological agents, serological tests such as the agar gel precipitation test, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and the use of immunoperoxidase to demonstrate intranuclear adenovirus-like particles in infected cells shown by electron microscopy. The control of HE is possible by vaccination using avirulent MSD virus of pheasants as well as avirulent or attenuated strains of turkey HE virus.

Keywords

Group II Aviadenovirushaemorrhagic enteritismarble spleen diseasesplenomegaly virus of chickensinfectionsturkeyspheasantsdomestic fowl
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 54 , Issue 3 , September 1998 , pp. 253 - 269
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1998

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agrimi, P. and Bandecchi, P. (1981) (Marble spleen disease of pheasants. II. Immunological studies III. Preventing the disease of pheasants by controlled infection.) Annali della Facolta di Mediciim Vrtevinavia di Pisa 34: 49–55, 57–65 (Italian)Google Scholar
Agrimi, P., Chiaro, F. Del., Mazza, I. Del., Fabiani, O. and Pierotti, P. (1979) (Marble spleen disease of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in Tuscany. Clinical, gross and histopathological, ultrastructural, epidemiological and immunological studies.) Annali della Facolta di Medicina veterinaria di Pisa 32: 153–165 (Italian)Google Scholar
Ahmad, J. and Sharma, J.M. (1993) Protection against haemorrhagic enteritis and Newcastle disease in turkeys by embryo vaccination with monovalent and bivalent vaccines. Avian Diseases 37: 485–491CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allan, G.M., McNulty, M.S. and Adair, B.M. (1987) A comparison of four methods for the detection of turkey haemorrhagic enteritis virus and antigen in experimentally infected turkeys. Avian Pathology 416: 107–113CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andral, B. and Toquin, D. (1984) (Viral enteritis syndromes of turkeys in Brittany.) Point Veterinaire 16: 13–19 (French)Google Scholar
Andral, B., Coz, J.le., Louzis, C., Dayon, J.F., Florent, J.M., Laisney, M.J., Toquin, D., Ropars, M.C. and Metz, M.H. (1984) (Immunizing turkey poults against haemorrhagic enteritis aviadenovirus.) Recueil de Medecine Veterinaire 160: 817–824(French)Google Scholar
Arbuckle, J.B.R., Parsons, D.G. and Luff, R. (1979) Haemorrhagic enteritis syndrome of turkeys. Veterinary Record 104: 435–436CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbour, E.K., Poss, P.E., Brinton, M.K., Johnson, J.B. and Nabbut, N.H. (1993) Evaluation of cell culture propagated and in-vivo propagated haemorrhagic enteritis vaccines in turkeys. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 35: 375–383CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beasley, J.N. and Clifton, S.G. (1979) Experimental infection of broiler and Leghorn chickens with virulent and avirulent isolates of haemorrhagic enteritis virus. Avian Diseases 23: 616–621CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beasley, J.N. and Wisdom, J. (1978) Studies on the pathogenesis of haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 22: 313–319CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergmann, V. and Muller, H. (1982) (Detection of marble spleen disease (avian adenovirus infection) in pheasants in the German Democratic Republic) Monatshefte für velerinurmedizin 37: 154 (German)Google Scholar
Carlson, H.C., Pettit, J.R., Hemsley, R.V. and Mitchell, W.R. (1973) Marble spleen disease of pheasants in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 37: 281–286Google ScholarPubMed
Davidson, I., Aronovici, A., Weisman, Y. and Malkinson, M. (1985) Enzyme immunoassay studies on the serological response of turkeys to haemorrhagic enteritis virus. Avian Disease 29: 43–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Despotopoulos, A. (1971) (Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys in Greece) Deltion Hellenikes Kteniatrikes Hetaireais 22: 151–155 (Greek)Google Scholar
Domermuth, C.H. and Gross, W.B. (1971) Effects of disinfectants and drying on the virus of haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 15: 94–97CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H. and Gross, W.B. (1972) Effect of chlorine on the virus of haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 16: 952–953CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H. and Gross, W.B. (1975) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Antiserum efficacy, Preparation and use. Avian Diseases 19: 657–665CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Domermuth, C.H., Gross, W.B., Douglass, C.S., Dubose, R.T., Harris, J.R. and Davis, R.B. (1977) Vaccination for haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 21: 557–565CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Gross, W.B. and Dubose, R.T. (1973) microimmunodiffusion test for haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 17: 439–444CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Gross, W.B., Dubose, R.T. (1975) Experimental reproduction and antibody inhibition of marble spleen disease of pheasants. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 11: 338–342CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Gross, W.B., Dubose, R.T., Watson, D.F. and Tolin, R. (1979a) Vaccination of ring necked pheasants for marble spleen disease. Avian Diseases 23: 30–38CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Forrester, D.J., Trainer, D.O. and Bigler, S.A. (1972) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys.3. Characterization of causative virus. Proceedings of 44th Northeast Coriference on Avian DiseusesGoogle Scholar
Domermuth, C.H., Gross, W.B., Schwartz, L.D., Malkinson, E.T. and Britt, R. (1979a) Vaccination of ring necked pheasants for marble spleen disease. Avian Diseases 23: 30–38CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Forrester, D.J., Trainer, D.O. and Bigler, W.J. (1977) Serologic examination of wild birds for haemorrhagic enteritis of turkey and marble spleen disease of pheasants. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 13: 405–408CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Harris, W.B., Gross, W.B. and Dubose, R.T. (1979b) A naturally occurring infection of chickens with a haemorrhagic enteritis/marble spleen disease type of virus. Avian Diseases 23: 479–484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Domermuth, C.H., Heide, L. Van Der and Faddoul, G.P. (1982) Pulmonary congestion and edema (marble spleen disease) of chickens produced by group II avian adenovirus. Avian Diseases 26: 629–633CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domermuth, C.H., Westen, C.R., Cowen, B.S., Colwell, W.M., Gross, W.B. and Dubose, R.T. (1980) Incidence and distribution of “avian adenovirus group II splenomegaly of chickens” – Avian Diseases 24: 591–594CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fabris, G., Gallazzo, G., Scapin, F. and Volpe, A. (1993) (Efficacy of an inactivated oil adjuvant vaccine against haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys). Zootecnica international 4: 60–63 (Italian)Google Scholar
Fadly, A.M. and Nazerian, K. (1982) Evidence for bursa1 involvement in the pathogenesis of haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 26: 525–533CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fadly, A.M. and Nazerian, K. (1989) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Influence of maternal antibody and age at exposure. Avian Diseases 33: 778–786CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fadly, A.M., Cowen, B.S. and Nazerian, K. (1988) Some observations on the response of ring necked pheasants to inoculation with various strains of cell culture propagated type II avian adenovirus. Avian Diseases 32: 548–552CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fasina, S.O. and Fabricant, J. (1982a) In-vitro studies of haemorrhagic enteritis virus with immunofluorescent antibody technique. Avian Diseases 26: 150–157CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fasina, S.O. and Fabricant, J. (1982b) lmmunofluorescence studies on the early pathogenesis of haemorrhagic enteritis virus infection in turkeys and chickens. Avian Diseases 26: 158–163CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, S.D. and Reed, W.M. (1991) Pathologenesis of marble spleen disease in bursectomized and non-bursectomized ring necked pheasants following oral inoculation with cell culture propagated virus. Avian Diseases 35: 579–584CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, S.D., Fitzgerald, A.L., Reed, W.M. and Burnstein, T. (1992a) Immune function in pheasants experimentally infected with marble spleen disease virus. Avian Diseases 36: 410–414CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzgerald, S.D., Reed, W.M. and Burnstein, T. (1991) The influence of age on the response on ring necked pheasants to infection with marble spleen disease virus. Avian Diseases 35: 950–964CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzgerald, S.D., Reed, W.M. and Burnstein, T. (1992b) Detection of type II avian adenoviral antigen in tissue sections using immunohistochemical staining. Avian Diseases 36: 341–347CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzgerald, S.D., Reed, W.M., Furukawa, A.M., Zemels, E. and Fung, L. (1995) Effect of T lymphocytes on the pathogenesis of marble spleen disease virus infection in ring necked pheasants. Avian Diseases 39: 68–73CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franciosi, C., Ruffoni, L.S., Petek, M., Verga, L., Mandelli, G. and Gallazzi, D. (1986) (Isolation of a strain of haemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV) from turkeys in Italy) Clinica Veterinaria 109: 90–96 (Italian)Google Scholar
Fujiwara, H., Tanaami, S., Yamaguchi, M. and Yoshino, T. (1975) Histopathology of haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys. National Institute of Animal Health, Qinarterly 15: 68–75Google ScholarPubMed
Gale, C. and Wyne, J.W. (1957) Preliminary observations on haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Poultry Science 36: 1267–1270CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez-Villamandos, J.C., Carranza, J., Sierra, M.A., Carrasco, L., Hervas, J., Blanco, A. and Fernandez, A. (1994) Haemorrhagic enteritis by adenovirus like particles in turkeys: possible pathogenic mechanism. Avian Diseases 38: 647–652CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomez-Villamandos, J.C., Martin De Las Mulas, J.M., Hervas, J., Chancon-M. De Lara, F., Perez, J. and Mozos, E. (1995) Spleno-enteritis caused by adenovirus in psittacine birds: a pathological study. Avian Pathology 24: 553–563CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gros, Fx. Le., Toquin, D., Guittet, M. and Bennejean, G. (1989) (Comparison of sensitivity of four turkey genetic types infected with virulent or attenuated strains of haemorrhagic enteritis virus) Avian Pathology 18: 147–159 (French)Google ScholarPubMed
Gross, W.B. and Domermuth, C.H. (1976) Spleen lesions of haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 20: 455–466CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, W.B. and Moore, W.E.C. (1967) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 11: 296–307CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, W.B., Domermuth, C.H. and Siegel, P.B. (1988) Genetic and environmental effects on the response of chickens to avian adenovirus group II infection. Avian Pathology 17: 767–774CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, J.R. and Domermuth, C.H. (1977) Hemorrhagic enteritis in two-and-one-half-week-old turkey poults. Avian Diseases 21: 120–122CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussain, I. and Nagaraja, K.V. (1993) A monoclonal antibody based immunoperoxidase method for rapid detection of haemorrhagic enteritis virus of turkeys. Research in Veterinary Science 55: 98–103CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussain, I. and Nagaraja, K.V. (1994) Application of restriction endonuclease profiles to the epidemiology of adenovirus haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 14: 62–66Google Scholar
Hussain, I., Choi, C.U., Rings, B.S., Shaw, D.P. and Nagaraja, K.V. (1993) Pathogenesis of haemorrhagic enteritis virus infection in turkeys. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B40: 715–726CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, R.L.W. (1986) Haemorrhagic enteritis virus infection of the spleen and bursa in turkey embryos and young poults. Dissertation Abstracts International B46: 4153Google Scholar
Ianconescu, M., Mccapes, R.H. and Bankowski, R.A. (1984) Serologic survey for haemorrhagic enteritis in California breeder and meat turkeys. Proceedings of the 33rd Western Poultry Conference,Davis, California pp. 29–30Google Scholar
Ianieri, A., Campanelli, V. and Madugno, G.DI. (1987) (Experimental infection of broilers and layers with marble spleen disease virus of pheasants) Clinica Veterinaria 110: 54–57 (Italian)Google Scholar
Iltis, J.P. (1976) Experimental transmission of marble spleen disease in turkeys and pheasants with demonstration, characterization and classification of the causative virus. Dissertation Abstracts International 36B: 10, 4890Google Scholar
Iltis, J.P. and Wyand, D.S. (1974) Indications of a viral etiology for marble spleen disease in pheasants. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 10: 272–278CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iltis, J.P., Daniels, S.B. and Wyand, D.S. (1977) Demonstration of an avian adenovirus as the causative agent of marble spleen disease. American Journal of Veterinary Research 38: 95–100Google ScholarPubMed
Iltis, J.P., Jakowski, R.M. and Wyand, D.S. (1975a) Experimentally transmitted marble spleen disease in pen-raised wild turkeys. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 11: 484–485CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iltis, J.P., Jakowski, R.M. and Wyand, D.S. (1975b) Transmission of marble spleen disease in turkeys and pheasants. American Journal of Veterinary Research 36: 97–101Google ScholarPubMed
Itakura, C. and Carlson, H.C. (1975a) Pathology of spontaneous haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 39: 310–315Google ScholarPubMed
Itakura, C. and Carlson, H.C. (1975b) Electron microscopic findings of cells with inclusion bodies in experimental haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 39: 299–304Google ScholarPubMed
Itakura, C., Carlson, H.C. and Lang, G.N. (1974) Experimental transmission of haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Pathology 3: 279–292CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jucker, M.T., McQuiston, J.R., Vanden Hurk, J.V., Boyle, S.M. and Pierson, F.W. (1996) Characterization of the haemorrhagic enteritis virus genome and the sequence of the putative penton base and core protein genes. Journal of General Virology 77: 469–479CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koncicki, A. (1990) (First report of adenoviral haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys in Poland) Medycyna Waterynaryjna 46: 16–17 (Polish)Google Scholar
Lojda, L., Valicek, I., Dvorakova, D. and Opitzova, L. (1986) (Repeated occurrence of haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys) Veterinarstvi 36: 361–362 (Czech)Google Scholar
Louzis, C. and Charpentier, S. (1979) (Marble spleen disease in the pheasant. Serological survey of experimentally infected colonies) Bulletin Mensiiel de la Societe Veterinaire Pratique de France 63: 311–312, 314–315 (French)Google Scholar
Louzis, C. and Lahellec, M. (1979) (Marble spleen disease. Experimental infection of the pheasant) Bulletin de l' Acadernie Veterinaire de France 52: 453–462 (French)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucientes, J., Garcia Narin, J.F. and Badiola, J.J. (1984) (outbreak of marble spleen disease in pheasants in Spain). Medicina Veterinaria 1: 59–61 (Spanish)Google Scholar
Malkinson, M., Weisman, Y., Aronovici, A. and Davidson, I. (1983) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys: comparison of two serological assays for detecting antibodies in one day old poults, sick and convalescent turkeys. Veterinary Record 113: 497CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandelli, G., Rampin, T., Guidobono, L.C. and Gallazzi, D. (1977) (Haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys due to adenovirus). Clinica veterinaria 100: 437–447 (Italian)Google Scholar
Martarino, P. and Manzotti, G. (1986) (Field trials on immunization against marble spleen disease of pheasants). Clinica Veterinaria 109: 84–89 (Italian)Google Scholar
Mazija, H., Bidin, Z. and Pilat, Z. (1979) (Haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys. I. Occurrence and role of the disease in intensive turkey breeding) Veterinarski Archiv 49: 355–358 (Serbo-Croatian)Google Scholar
McBride, M.D., Hird, D.W., Carpenter, T.E., Snipes, K.P., Danaya-Elmi, C. and Utterback, W.W. (1991) Health survey of backyard poultry and other avian species located within one mile of commercial California meat-turkey flocks. Avian Diseases 35: 403–407CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDougall, J.S. and Stuart, J.C. (1980) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Veterinary Record 106: 291CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meteyer, C.U., Mohammed, H.O., Chin, R.P., Bickford, A.A., Trampel, D.W. and Klein, P.N. (1992) Relationship between age of flock seroconversion to haemorrhagic enteritis virus and appearance of adenoviral inclusions in the spleen and renal tubule epithelia of turkeys. Avian Diseases 36: 88–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael, A. (1988) Haemorrhagic enteritis in Israel. Poultry International 27: 76Google Scholar
Muller, H., Bergmann, V. and Wilke, I. (1984) (Marble spleen disease in pheasants) Monatshefte für Veterinarrnedizin 39: 377–381 (German)Google Scholar
Nagaraja, K.V., Emery, D.A., Patel, B.L., Pomeroy, B.S. and Newman, J.A. (1982a) In-vitro evaluation of B lymphocyte function in turkeys infected with haemorrhagic enteritis virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 43: 502–504Google Scholar
Nagaraja, K.V., Patel, B.L., Emery, D.L., Pomeroy, B.S. and Newman, J.A. (1982b) In vitro depression of the mitogenic response of lymphocytes from turkeys infected with haemorrhagic enteritis virus. American Journal of Veterinay Research 43: 134–136Google Scholar
Nazerian, K. and Fadly, A.M. (1982) Propagation of virulent and avirulent turkey haemorrhagic enteritis virus in cell culture. Avian Diseases 26: 816–827CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nazerian, K., Lee, L.F. and Payne, W.S. (1991) Structural polypeptides of type II avian adenoviruses analysed by monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. Avian Diseases 35: 572–578CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumann, U., Gehr, K.P., Luders, H. and Siegmann, O. (1991) Sequential serological studies in different turkey farms in northern Germany. 1. Report: Detection of humoral antibodies against haemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV). Archiv für Geflugelkunde 55: 10–13Google Scholar
Newberry, L.A., Skeeles, J.K., Kreider, D.L.,Beasley, J.N., Story, J.D., McNew, R.W. and Berridge, B.R. (1993) Use of virulent haemorrhagic enteritis virus for the induction of collibacillosis in turkeys. Avian Diseases 37: 1–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Occhipinti, L., Novak, J., Yamamoto, R., West, G.B.E., Lam, K.M. and Farver, T.B. (1986) Seroepidemiology of marble spleen disease on a large pheasant farm in California. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 3: 581–588CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Opengart, K., Eyre, P. and Domermuth, C.H. (1992) Increased numbers of duodenal mucosal mast cells in turkeys inoculated with haemorrhagic enteritis virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 23: 814–819CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ossa, J.E. (1983) The viruses of haemorrhagic enteritis and marble spleen disease. Dissertation Abstracts International B44: 1013Google Scholar
Ossa, J.E., Alexander, J. and Schurig, G.C. (1983) Role of splenectomy in prevention of haemorrhagic enteritis and death from haemorrhagic enteritis virus in turkeys. Avian Diseases 27: 1106–1111CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, D.G., Luff, P.R. and Arbuckle, J.B.R. (1981) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Veterinary Record 108: 458–459CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrin, G., Louzis, C. and Toquin, D. (1981) (Culture of turkey haemorrhagic enteritis virus in-vitro) Bulletin de l' Academie Veterinaire de France 54: 231–235 (French)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomeroy, B.S. and Fenstermacher, R. (1937) Haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys. Poultry Science 16: 378–382CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruffoni, L.S., Franciosi, C., Zuanni, S., Petek, M. and Fioretti, A. (1986) (Application of ELISA to an epidemiological survey for haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys) Clinica Veterinaria 109: 112–116 (Italian)Google Scholar
Saunders, G.K., Pierson, F.W. and Vanden Hurk, J.V. (1993) Haemorrhagic enteritis virus infection in turkeys: a comparison of virulent and avirulent virus infections and a proposed pathogenesis. Avian Pathology 22: 47–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharma, J.M. (1994) Response of specific pathogen free turkeys to vaccines derived from marble spleen disease virus and haemorrhagic enteritis virus. Avian Diseases 38: 523–530CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silim, A. and Thorsen, J. (1981) Haemorrhagic enteritis: virus distribution and sequential development of antibody in turkeys. Avian Diseases 25: 444–453CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silim, A., Thorsen, J. and Carlson, H.C. (1978) Experimental infection of chickens with haemorrhagic enteritis virus. Avian Diseases 22: 106–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sileo, L., Fransosn, J.C., Graham, D.L., Domermuth, C.H., Rattner, B.A. and Pattee, O.H. (1983) Haemorrhagic enteritis in captive American kestrels. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 19: 244–247CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sostaric, B., Bidin, Z., Lipej, Z. and Savic, V. (1994) (Marble spleen disease in pheasants: demonstration of specific Aviadenovirus type II inclusions with a first description of the disease in Croatia) Praxis Veterinaria Zagreb 42: 23–30 (Serbo-Croatian)Google Scholar
Suresh, M. and Sharma, J.M. (1995) Haemorrhagic enteritis virus induced changes in the lymphocyte subpopulations in turkeys and the effect of experimental immunodeficiency on viral pathogenesis. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 45: 139–150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suresh, M. and Sharma, J.M. (1996) Pathogenesis of type II avian adenovirus infections in turkeys: in-vivo immune cell tropism and tissue distribution of the virus. Journal of Virology 70: 30–36CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tham, V.L. and Critchley, K.L. (1981) Haemorrhagic enteritis syndrome of turkeys. Australian Veterinary Journal 57: 353–354CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tham, V.L. and Thies, N.F. (1988) Marble spleen disease of pheasants. Australian Veterinary Journal 65: 130–131CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorsen, J., Weninger, N., Weber, L. and Dijk, C. Van (1982) Field trials of an immunization procedure against haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys. Avian Diseases 26: 473–477CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolin, S.A. and Domermuth, C.H. (1975) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys: electron microscopy of the causal virus. Avian Diseases 19: 118–125CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trampel, D.W., Meteyer, C.S. and Bickford, A.A. (1990) Haemorrhagic enteritis virus inclusions in turkey kidneys. Proceedings of the 39th Western Poultry Disease Conference,Sacramento, California, USAGoogle Scholar
Trampel, D.W., Meteyer, C.W. and Bickford, A.A. (1992) haemorrhagic enteritis virus inclusions in turkey renal tubular epithelium. Avian Diseases 36: 1086–1091CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasicek, L. and Kopera, E. (1980) (Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys in Austria) Weiner Tierarztliche Monatsschrift 67: 305–309 (German)Google Scholar
Veit, H.P., Domermuth, C.H. and Gross, W.B. (1981) Histopathology of avian adenovirus group II splenomegaly of chickens. Avian Diseases 25: 866–873CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisman, Y., Aornovici, S.A., Davidson, I. and Malkinson, M. (1984) Haemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys: serological survey of commercial flocks and response to inactivated vaccine. Proceedings of the 33rd Western Poultry Conference,Davis, California pp. 27–28Google Scholar
Wilcock, B.P. and Thacker, H.L. (1976) Focal hepatic necrosis in turkeys with haemorrhagic enteritis. Avian Diseases 20: 205–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamaguchi, S., Imada, T. and Kawamura, H. (1982) Survey on antibody against haemorrhagic enteritis virus among chicken flocks in Japan. National Institute of Animal Health, Quarterly 22: 180–181Google Scholar
Zhang, C. and Nagaraja, K.V. (1989) Differentiation of avian adenovirus type II strains by restriction endonuclease fingerprinting. American Journal of Veterinary Research 50: 1466–1470Google ScholarPubMed
Zhang, C., Nagaraja, K.V., Shivanandan, V. and Newman, J.A. (1991) Identification and characterization of viral polypeptides from type II avian adenovirus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 52: 1137–1141CrossRefGoogle Scholar