Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian retina. The present paper describes the localization of GABAA receptors in the rat retina as revealed by in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry.

In situ hybridization with probes against various a subunits revealed a marked differential expression pattern. The αl subunit gene is expressed mainly in the bipolar and horizontal cell layer, the α2 gene in the amacrine and ganglion cell layer, and the α4 gene in a subpopulation of amacrine cells. β subunit mRNA is present diffusely throughout the entire inner nuclear layer and in the ganglion cell layer.

The monoclonal antibody bd 17 (against β2/β3 subunits) stained subpopulations of GABAergic and glycinergic amacrine cells as well as some ganglion cells and bipolar cells. Immunoreactivity was not restricted to synaptic input sites. In the outer plexiform layer bipolar cell dendrites were immunoreactive; in the inner plexiform layer mainly amacrine and ganglion cell processes were labeled, and bipolar cell axons appeared unstained. The results demonstrate a strong heterogeneity of GABAA receptors in the retina.

The effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on the extracellularly recorded activity of ganglion cells were studied in superfused rabbit retinas. VIP, applied to the bathing solution, significantly increased the maintained activity of both OFF-center and ON-center brisk ganglion cells. The transient, excitatory responses of these cells to flashes of light (spots or annuli centered over the receptive field) were either unaffected or moderately reduced. VIP did not affect the responses of most ON/OFF directionally selective ganglion cells to a moving light stimulus. Furthermore, maintained activity of most of these cells remained absent.

Effects of VIP on the light responses of ganglion cells were pronounced in retinas that were bathed with the dopamine D1 antagonist (+)-SCH 23390. For OFF-center brisk ganglion cells, VIP brought out both the center and surround excitatory responses that were selectively reduced by (+)-SCH 23390. Similarly, VIP brought out the leading edge responses that were reduced by (+)-SCH 23390 in ON/OFF directionally selective ganglion cells to a moving light stimulus. VIP did not however reverse the effects of (+)-SCH 23390 on ON-center brisk ganglion cells. It is argued that VIP counteracts the effects of (+)-SCH 23390 on OFF-center brisk ganglion cells and ON/OFF directionally selective ganglion cells by stimulating adenylate cyclase activity in dopamine-receptive cells of the retina.

Spontaneous eye movements as well as visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive cervical reflexes which contribute to gaze stabilization were investigated in the chameleon using the magnetic search-coil technique. The oculomotor range of each eye was very large (180 deg horizontally × 80 deg vertically). Spontaneous ocular saccades were independent in the two eyes and could have very large amplitudes. The fast phases of nystagmus during the stabilization reflexes were also independent in the eyes. In the head-restrained condition, optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) had a low gain in both horizontal and vertical planes (0.35 at 5 deg/s) and showed little binocular interaction. The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) exhibited a low gain (0.2–0.3 from 0.05–1 Hz) and a high-phase lead at low frequency (140 deg at 0.05 Hz). Rotation of the animal in the presence of a visible surround increased the overall gain of gaze stabilization to 0.4–0.5 (P < 0.01) and considerably reduced the phase lead (38 deg at 0.05 Hz). In the head-free condition, head and eye reflexes were active simultaneously during both optokinetic and vestibular stimulation, but nystagmic head movements appeared only occasionally with a rather loose eye-head coordination. During optokinetic stimulation, eye movements contributed more than head movements to gaze stabilization, whereas, during vestibular or visuo-vestibular stimulation, the relative contribution of eye and head responses varied with stimulus frequency. When the head was freed, overall gain for gaze stabilization increased from 0.35 to 0.45 (P < 0.05) for optokinetic stimulation at 5 deg/s and from 0.2–0.3 to 0.4–0.75 (P < 0.001) for vestibular stimulation at 0.05–1 Hz. Optimal gaze stabilization (gain of 0.8) was only obtained with combined visual and vestibular stimulation in the free-head condition. Cervical stimulation provoked a compensatory cervico-ocular reflex (COR) with a gain of 0.2–0.4 as well as ocular saccades, which were especially numerous in the presence of a visual surround. The direction of these saccades alternated between compensatory and anti-compensatory.

The effects of V4, MT, and combined V4+MT lesions were assessed on a broad range of visual capacities that included measures of contrast sensitivity, wavelength and brightness discrimination, form vision, pattern vision, motion and flicker perception, stereopsis, and the selection of stimuli that were less prominent than those with which they appeared in stimulus arrays. The major deficit observed was a loss in the ability, after V4 lesions, to select such less prominent stimuli; this was the case irrespective of the manner in which the stimulus arrays were made visible, using either luminance, chrominance, motion, or stereoscopic depth as surface media. In addition, V4 lesions yielded mild deficits in color, brightness, and form vision whereas MT lesions yielded mild to moderate deficits in motion and flicker perception. Both lesions produced mild deficits in contrast sensitivity, shape-from-motion perception, and yielded increased reaction times on many of the tasks. The impairment resulting from combined V4 and MT lesions was not greater than the sum of the deficits of either lesion. None of the lesions produced significant deficits in stereopsis. The findings suggest that (1) area V4 is part of a neural system that is involved in extracting stimuli from the visual scene that elicit less neural activity early in the visual system than do other stimuli with which they appear and (2) several other extrastriate regions and more than just two major cortical processing streams contribute to the processing of basic visual functions in the extrastriate cortex.

We have recorded whole-cell membrane currents in response to exogenously applied acetylcholine (ACh), nicotine, and 1,1 dimethyl-4-phenyl piperazinium iodide on retinal ganglion cells enzymatically dissociated from goldfish retina. Agonist applications induced nicotinic-type responses in a majority of cells when cells were isolated under optimal conditions. Currents were reminiscent of nicotinic-type ganglionic responses. Dose-response measurements of ACh-induced currents indicated an EC50 of 52 μM and a Hill coefficient of 0.6. Currents were selective for Na+ over Cl− and were highly inwardly rectifying. Responses were blocked reversibly by d-tubocurarine, hexamethonium chloride, and N-methyl-D-glucamine. In 50% of the cases, α-bungarotoxin reversibly blocked the current induced by ACh application. The blocking action of mecamylamine was irreversible and independent of the presence of agonist but was more effective in the presence of ACh. We conclude that functional nicotinic ACh receptors exist on most goldfish retinal ganglion cells.

On the basis of cortical connections and architectonics, inferior temporal (IT) cortex of squirrel monkeys consists of a caudal, prestriate-recipient region, ITC; a rostral region, ITR; and possibly an intermediate region along the border of ITC and ITR, ITI (Weller & Steele, 1992). ITC contains dorsal (ITCd) and ventral (ITCv) areas. The subcortical connections of these subdivisions of IT cortex were determined in the present study from the results of cortical injections of wheat-germ agglutinin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, [3H]-amino acids and fast blue. ITC and ITR receive afferents from the locus coeruleus, dorsal raphe, nucleus annularis, central superior nucleus, pontine reticular formation, lateral hypothalamus, paracentral nucleus, and central medial nucleus; send efferents to the superior colliculus, reticular nucleus, and striatum; and have both afferent and efferent connections with the pretectum, pulvinar, claustrum, amygdala, and basal nucleus of Meynert. ITC and ITR have different patterns of connections with a number of subcortical structures, including the pulvinar and amygdala. Injections in ITC strongly label multiple nuclei of the inferior pulvinar and the medial division of the lateral pulvinar (PLM), and moderately label the medial pulvinar (PM), whereas injections in ITR strongly label PM and moderately label PLM. Injections in ITC label sparse projections to the lateral nucleus of the amygdala, in contrast to injections in ITR that label strong projections to the lateral and basal nuclei of the amygdala. Injections in “IT” produce a pattern of subcortical label that has some features of that observed from injections in ITC and that observed from injections in ITR. Although most of the connections of ITCd and ITCv appear similar, only injections involving ITCd label the middle nucleus of the inferior pulvinar (PIM).

Comparison of the subcortical connections of subdivisions of IT cortex in squirrel monkeys and what is presently known of the subcortical connections of subdivisions of IT cortex in macaque monkeys supports the previous suggestion that ITC of squirrel monkeys may be comparable to area TEO of macaques, IT, may be comparable to posterior area TE, and ITR may be comparable to anterior area TE (Weller & Steele, 1992).

Hartveit, E. & Heggelund, P. (1992). The effect of contrast on the visual response of lagged and nonlagged cells in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus. Visual Neuroscience9, 515–525.

This study has examined the representation of the dorso-ventral retinal axis in the optic nerve and tract of the ferret, as well as the associated fiber transformations which take place within the chiasmatic region. In one series of experiments, dorsal or ventral retinal lesions were made to induce fiber degeneration along the pathway, from which semi-thin sections were then stained for degenerating myelin. In a second series, implants of the carbocyanine dye, Dil, were made into the caudo-medial or rostro-lateral optic tract in order to label retrogradely the axons as they course through the chiasmatic region. Additional observations were made from the optic pathways of ferrets that had been similarly lesioned or implanted, but employing either a reduced-silver technique to reveal the degenerating axons or horseradish peroxidase as the retrograde label.

The axons arising from the dorsal and ventral retina course in the dorsal and ventral parts of the optic nerve posterior to the eye, but as they continue along the nerve they disperse producing a highly impoverished retinotopy in the prechiasmatic portion of the nerve. As they course through the chiasmatic region, however, they become segregated again: dorsal fibers cross the midline relatively caudally while ventral fibers cross further rostrally, although there is overlap between them. Nearer the threshold of the optic tract, the fibers from dorsal and ventral retina undergo a further and more striking segregation, placing the dorsal fibers caudo-medially and the ventral fibers rostro-laterally within the tract. This re-emergence of retinotopic order implicates a fiber-substrate interaction as being responsible for the axonal reordering, and suggests that fiber pre-ordering in the tract contributes to the formation of the orderly projection of the dorso-ventral retinal axis upon central visual targets.

Immunocytochemical techniques have been used to examine the distribution of substance-P (SP)-labeled neurons in the superior colliculus of rats from birth to adulthood. At birth, there are almost no SP-immunopositive neurons in the tectum. A small number of SP neurons appear over the next several days. However, the vast majority of SP neurons appear between P9 and P10, and by P12 have attained adult-like numbers and distribution. Neurons are confined to the superficial layers of the colliculus, specifically the upper two-thirds of the stratum griseum superficiale (SGS). There is no indication of a differential developmental sequence along rostrocaudal or mediolateral axes. Neuronal types can be distinguished as early as P6 and include horizontal, vertical, and multipolar cells.

Substance-P-immunoreactive axons and boutons are also present in the superior colliculus at birth, and are for the most part confined to the deep layers. Boutons are generally of the en-passant type. The density of labeled axons and boutons increases progressively, and by P10 there is an almost adult-like lamination and patchiness. In the adult, labeled axons and boutons are most dense in the stratum opticum and stratum griseum intermedium. Bridges of dorsoventrally oriented labeled axons span the relatively label-poor stratum album intermedium. SP label in the stratum griseum profundum is dense and patchy, and there is also dense label in the stratum album profundum bordering the periaqueductal grey.

The role of substance-P-labeled neurons in the superior colliculus is still a matter of speculation. The findings of this study indicate that SP neurons may play a role in intrinsic collicular circuitry.

Ablation of visual cortical areas 17 and 18 in neonatal and young adult cats induces novel retinal projections to terminate bilaterally in the lateral posterior nucleus (LP) at a position ventromedial from the medial interlaminar nucleus. Comparison with the visual-field maps of LP indicate that the terminations are focussed on the representation of the visual-field center.

The primary goal of this study was to expand the description of the filtering properties of the Y-cell receptive field, byquantitatively characterizing the spatial filtering properties of the receptive field’s center-and-surround components as a function of adapting light level. A range of more than five orders of magnitude in retinal illuminance were covered, including the vast majority of the cat’s functional range of vision.

Recordings were taken from optic tract fibers of Y cells in cats under general anesthesia. Sinusoidal gratings and a stimulus designed to selectively probe the properties of the surround mechanism were used. The cells’ responses to these stimuli were fit to a Gaussian center-surround receptive-field model, in which six parameters define the properties of the center and surround. Fits were made independently to data collected at each light level and changes in the values of the model’s parameters with illuminance are reported. A set of equations that summarize the changes in parameter values is given. From these summary equations, reasonable estimates of the parameters’ values can be determined across a wide range of illuminances. Hence, a quantitative model of the spatial properties of the center and surround of the Y-cell receptive field can now be derived from these equations for most of the levels of retinal illuminance experienced by a Y cell. The consistency between the description provided by our equations and results from earlier work is considered.

Our previous studies suggested that reduced choroidal blood flow (CBF) occurs with manipulations that yield myopic eye growth and that these reductions are primarily a consequence of the ocular enlargement. We could not entirely rule out the possibility, however, that reductions in CBF are at least to some extent antecedent and causal to the ocular enlargement. We therefore in the present study examined the effects on eye size of artificially reducing CBF by unilaterally transecting the choroidal nerves of the ciliary ganglion in four-day-old chicks. For comparison, we also transected the ciliary nerves in a second group of chicks or transected both ciliary and choroidal nerves in a third group of chicks. The effects of the nerve transections were evaluated in comparison to the effects of the orbital surgery itself (without nerve transection) in a fourth group termed the sham-operated control group. Two weeks after transection, CBF was measured using laser Doppler velocimetry, the ocular axial, nasotemporal and dorsoventral lengths were measured, and the eyes weighed.

The results showed that CBF in birds with either choroidal nerve cuts or choroidal plus ciliary nerve cuts was greatly reduced in the treated eye (20–40% of nontreated eye). The treated eyes of these birds also showed gross depigmentation and histologically evident loss of the outer retina, most typically in the temporal retina. Birds with ciliary nerve cuts showed increased CBF in both eyes (131% right eye and 154% left eye compared to shams). Since ciliary nerve cuts yield fixed dilated pupils, increased CBF with ciliary nerve cuts appears consistent with the previously reported involvement of the choroidal nerves within a neural circuit subserving light-mediated upregulation of CBF. Clear effects on eye size were observed in the treated eyes in each group. The sham surgery alone yielded slight enlargement of the right eye compared to left eye, particularly in the axial dimension. In the choroidal nerve and the both nerve cut groups, nasotemporal and dorsoventral elongation were slightly diminished in the treated eyes compared to the sham-treated eyes. In contrast, enlargement of the right eye was slightly enhanced in the ciliary nerve cut group compared to the sham-treated eyes. The overall results suggest that large decreases in CBF do not enhance myopic eye growth, although large increases in CBF may.

It has been argued that in order for the visual system to detect edges accurately under a range of conditions, the visual system needs to adapt to the local contrast level to preserve sensitivity (Blakemore & Campbell, 1969). Cells in the primary visual cortex of cats adapt to stimuli with low to moderate contrast. Curiously, macaque monkey neurons in primary visual cortex (V1) do not show evidence for similar adaptation. To address the question of whether this differential sensitivity in contrast adaptation might be due to phylogenetic variation between cats and primates or to specializations for visual niche (e.g. nocturnal vs. diurnal), contrast adaptation to temporally and spatially optimized gratings was examined in 30 V1 cells of three nocturnal primate bush babies (Galago crassicaudatus). A second objective was to examine the relationship between the degree of contrast adaptation and cell classification or cell location relative to cortical layers or compartments [i.e. cytochrome-oxidase (CO) blobs and interblobs]. All cells were classified (simple vs. complex) and anatomically localized relative to cortical layers and cytochrome-oxidase (CO) blob and interblob compartments. Two independent measures of contrast adaptation were used. In the first test, contrast was sequentially increased from 3–56% and then decreased. The contrast required to maintain a half-maximum response amplitude in the 30 cells tested increased an average of 0.24 (±0.12) log units during the sequential decrements in contrast. For the second test, four sets of five interleaved contrasts within ±1 octave of a central adapting contrast (10%, 14%, 20%, and 28%, respectively) were presented. The cells produced a mean adaptation index of 0.57 (±0.47) which is very similar to that exhibited by cat cortical neurons (0.54 ± 0.41). Interestingly, cells in interblobs showed a trend toward greater adaptation than did blob cells. Moreover, cells in the supragranular layers exhibited greater adaptation than cells in the infragranular layers. No significant differences in adaptation were found to correlate with other cell classification indices. Taken together, our results suggest that contrast adaptation may be more important for maintaining sensitivity in nocturnal species (primates or cats) than in diurnal species (macaque monkeys), and that in the nocturnal bush baby, cells in cortical layers and compartments may be differentially specialized for contrast adaptation.

As in other primates, the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the prosimian primate, bush baby (Galago crassicaudatus), contains three morphologically and physiologically distinct cell classes [magnocellular (M), parvocellular (P), and koniocellular (K)] (Norton & Casagrande, 1982; Casagrande & Norton, 1991). The present study examined quantitatively the center/surround relationships of cells in all three classes. Estimates of receptive-field center size (Rc) and sensitivity (Kc) and of surround size (Rs) and sensitivity (Ks) were obtained from 47 LGN relay cells by fitting a difference of Gaussians function to contrast-sensitivity data. For M and P cells, center size (Rc) increases with eccentricity but is about two times larger for M than for P cells at a given eccentricity. Surround size (Rs) increases with eccentricity for P but not for M or K cells. The center sensitivity (Kc) is inversely related to center size (Rc) and surround sensitivity (Ks) is inversely related to surround size (Rs) for cells in all classes, a result consistent with the sensitivity regulation that is produced by light adaptation. High spatial-frequency cutoff (acuity) is inversely related to center size (Rc). However, the peak contrast sensitivity is relatively independent of Rc. The ratio of the integrated strength (volume) of the surround to the volume of the center remains relatively constant (median, 0.87) across all three cell classes. This ratio is an excellent predictor of a cell’s rolloff in contrast sensitivity at low spatial frequencies: cells with a low surround/center ratio have less low-frequency rolloff. Although M, P, and K cells generally display similar center/surround relationships, differences in center size and the other parameters between the classes distinguish most M, P, and K cells. These findings demonstrate that both similarities and differences in the visual-response properties of primate LGN cells in these three parallel afferent pathways can be explained by basic center/surround relationships.

Spatial summation curves were determined in the circumscribed visual-field defects of five patients with blindsight. Under light-adapted conditions that favor the color-opponent system, increment thresholds for white and red targets presented on a white background were measured as a function of stimulus size which ranged from 9–110 min arc. In both normal and defective hemifields, summation was linear for the red stimuli. In contrast, the curves measured with the white stimuli showed some nonlinearity in the normal hemifield, and a pronounced eccentricity-dependent notch in the field defect. The results indicate that the neurons mediating sensitivity differ in their summation properties for wavelength and intensity information.