Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-jbqgn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-02T23:49:55.391Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Psychophysiological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Indices of the Emotional Response: A Factor-Analytic Study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 April 2014

Juan Pedro Sánchez-Navarro ,
José María Martínez-Selva ,
Ginesa Torrente  and
Francisco Román
Juan Pedro Sánchez-Navarro*
Affiliation:
Universidad de Murcia (Spain)
José María Martínez-Selva
Affiliation:
Universidad de Murcia (Spain)
Ginesa Torrente
Affiliation:
Universidad de Murcia (Spain)
Francisco Román
Affiliation:
Universidad de Murcia (Spain)
*
Address correspondence concerning this article to: J.P. Sánchez-Navarro, Departamento de Anatomía Humana y Psicobiología. Facultad de Psicología., Universidad de Murcia. Campus de Espinardo. 30100 Murcia (Spain). Phone: +34 968 367 707. E-mail: jpedro@um.es
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Previous research on the components of the emotional response employing factor analytic studies has yielded a two-factor structure (Lang, Greenwald, Bradley, & Hamm, 1993; Cuthbert, Schupp, Bradley, Birbaumer, & Lang, 2000). However, the startle blink reflex, a widely employed measure of the emotional response, has not been considered to date. We decided to include two parameters of the startle reflex (magnitude and latency) in order to explore further how this response fits into the two-factor model of emotion. We recorded the acoustic startle blink response, skin conductance response, heart rate, free viewing time, and picture valence and arousal ratings of 45 subjects while viewing 54 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS; 18 unpleasant, 18 neutral, and 18 pleasant). Factorizations of all measures gave a two-factor solution (valence and arousal) that accounted for 70% of the variance. Although some measurements, including heart rate change, did not behave as predicted, our results reinforce the two-dimension model of the emotion, and show that startle fits into the model.

La investigación previa sobre los componentes de la respuesta emocional empleando estudios de análisis factorial ha proporcionado una estructura de dos factores (Lang, Greenwald, Bradley y Hamm, 1993; Cuthbert, Schupp, Bradley, Birbaumer y Lang, 2000). Sin embargo, el parpadeo reflejo de sobresalto, una medida ampliamente empleada de respuesta emocional, no se ha considerado hasta la fecha. Decidimos incluir dos parámetros del reflejo de sobresalto (magnitud y latencia) para explorar si esta respuesta se ajusta al modelo bifactorial de la emoción. Registramos el parpadeo reflejo de sobresalto acústico, la respuesta de conductancia de la piel, la tasa cardiaca, el tiempo de visión, y las evaluaciones de valencia y de arousal de 45 sujetos mientas miraban 54 representaciones del IAPS (18 desagradables, 18 neutrales, y 18 agradables). La factorización de todas las medidas proporcionó una solución de dos factores (valencia y arousal) que explicaban el 70% de la varianza. Aunque algunas medidas, incluyendo el cambio en tasa cardiaca, no se comportaban como se había predicho, nuestros resultados refuerzan el modelo bidimensional de la emoción y demuestran que el sobresalto se ajusta al modelo.

Keywords

startle reflexheart rateskin conductanceemotional responseorienting responsereflejo de sobresaltotasa cardiacaconductancia de la pielrespuesta emocionalrespuesta de orientación
Type
Articles
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 11 , Issue 1 , May 2008 , pp. 16 - 25
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abelson, R.P., & Sermat, V. (1962). Multidimensional scaling of facial expressions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 546–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bagiella, E., Sloan, R.P., & Heitjan, D.F. (2000). Mixed-effects models in psychophysiology. Psychophysiology, 37, 13–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernston, G.G., Cacioppo, J.T., Quigley, K.S., & Fabro, V.T. (1994). Autonomic space and psychophysiological response. Psychophysiology, 31, 44–61.Google Scholar
Bradley, M.M. (2000). Emotion and motivation. In Cacioppo, J.T.Tassinary, L.G. and Bernston, G.G. (Eds.), Handbook of Psychophysiology (2nd ed.) (pp. 602–642). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bradley, M.M., Codispoti, M., Cuthbert, B.N., & Lang, P.J. (2001). Emotion and motivation I: Defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing. Emotion, 1, 276–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, M.M., & Lang, P.J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The Self-Assessment Manikin and the semantic differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 49–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, M.M., Cuthbert, B.N., & Lang, P.J. (1990). Startle reflex modification: Emotion or attention? Psychophysiology, 27, 513–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, M.M., Cuthbert, B.N., & Lang, P.J. (1999). Affect and the startle reflex. In Dawson, M.E.Schell, A.M., & Böhmelt, A.H. (Eds.), Startle modification: Implications for neuroscience, cognitive science, and clinical science (pp. 157–183). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, M.M., Greenwald, M.K., & Hamm, A.O. (1993). Affective picture processing. In Birbaumer, N. & Öhman, A. (Eds.), The structure of emotion. Psychological, cognitive and clinical aspects (pp. 48–68). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.Google Scholar
Bradley, M.M., Lang, P.J., & Cuthbert, B.N. (1993). Emotion, novelty, and the startle reflex: Habituation in humans. Behavioral Neuroscience, 107, 970–980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention [CSEA-NIHM] (1999). The International Affective Picture System: Digitized photographs. Gainesville, FL: The Center for Research in Psychophysiology, University of Florida.Google Scholar
Cliff, N., & Young, F.W. (1968). On the relation between unidimensional judgments and multidimensional scaling. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 269–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobos, P., García, C., Ríus, F., & Vila, J. (2002). Modulación emocional de la respuesta de sobresalto. Psicothema, 14, 106–111.Google Scholar
Cook, E.W., & Turpin, G. (1997). Differentiating orienting, startle, and defense responses: The role of affect and its implications for psychopathology. In Lang, P.J.Simons, R.F., & Balaban, M. (Eds.), Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes (pp. 137–164). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cuthbert, B.N., Bradley, M.M., & Lang, P.J. (1996). Probing picture perception: Activation or emotion. Psychophysiology, 33, 103–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuthbert, B.N., Schupp, H.T., Bradley, M.M., Birbaumer, N., & Lang, P.J. (2000). Brain potentials in affective picture processing: Covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report. Biological Psychology, 52, 95–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, D.C., Christie, M.J., Edelberg, R., Grings, W.W., Lykken, D.L., & Venables, P.H. (1981). Publication recommendations for electrodermal measurements. Psychophysiology, 18, 232–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fridlund, A.J., & Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). Guidelines for human electromyographic research. Psychophysiology, 23, 567–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, F.K. (1979). Distinguishing among orienting, defense, and startle reflexes. In Kimmel, H.D.Olst, E.H. Van, & Orlebeke, J.F. (Eds.), The orienting reflex in humans (pp. 137–168). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Graham, F.K., & Clifton, R.K. (1966). Heart-rate change as a component of the orienting response. Psychological Bulletin, 65, 305–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, M.K., Cook, E.K., & Lang, P.J. (1989). Affective judgment and psychophysiological response: Dimensional covariation in the evaluation of pictorial stimuli. Journal of Psychophysiology, 3, 51–64.Google Scholar
Hodes, R.L., Cook, E.W., & Lang, P.J. (1985). Individual differences in autonomic response: Conditioned association or conditioned fear? Psychophysiology, 22, 545–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P.J. (1968). Fear reduction and fear behavior: Problems in treating a construct. In Shlien, J.M. (Ed.), Research in psychotherapy (Vol. 3). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Lang, P.J. (1978): Anxiety: Toward a psychophysiological definition. In Akiskal, H.S. & Webb, W.H. (Eds.), Psychiatric diagnosis: Exploration of biological predictors (pp. 365–389). New York: Spectrum.Google Scholar
Lang, P.J. (1994). The motivational organization of emotion: Affect-reflex connections. In Van Goozen, S.H.M.Pol, N.E. Van de, & Sergeant, J.A. (Eds.), Emotions: Essays on emotion theory (pp. 61–93). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lang, P.J. (1995). The emotion probe. American Psychologist, 50, 372–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., & Cuthbert, B.N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97, 377–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., & Cuthbert, B.N. (1992). A motivational analysis of emotion: Reflex-cortex connections. Psychological Science, 3, 44–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., & Cuthbert, B.N. (1997). Motivated attention: Affect, activation, and action. In Lang, P.J.Simons, R.F., & Balaban, M.T. (Eds.), Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes (pp. 97–135). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., & Cuthbert, B.N. (1998). Emotion, motivation, and anxiety: Brain mechanisms and psychophysiology. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1248–1263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., & Cuthbert, B.N. (1999). International affective picture system (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings. Gainesville: The Center for Research in Psychophysiology, University of Florida.Google Scholar
Lang, P.J., Greenwald, M.K., Bradley, M.M., & Hamm, A.O. (1993). Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavior reactions. Psychophysiology, 30, 261–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, P.J., Rice, D.G., & Sternbach, R.A. (1972). The psychophysiology of emotion. In Greenfield, N.S., & Sternbach, R.A. (Eds.), Handbook of Psychophysiology (pp. 623–643). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Libby, W.L., Lacey, B.C., & Lacey, J.I. (1973). Pupillary and cardiac activity during visual attention. Psychophysiology, 10, 270–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moltó, J., Montañés, S., Poy, R., Segarra, P., Pastor, M.C., Tormo, M.P., Ramírez, I., Hernández, M.A., Sánchez, M., Fernández, M.C., & Vila, J. (1999). Un nuevo método para el estudio experimental de las emociones: El International Affective Picture System (IAPS). Adaptación española. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 52, 55–87.Google Scholar
Öhman, A., Esteves, F., Flykt, A., & Soares, J.J.F. (1992). Gateways to consciousness: Emotion, attention, and electrodermal activity. In Roy, J.-C.Boucsein, W.Fowles, D.C., & Gruzelier, J.H. (Eds.), Progress in electrodermal research (pp. 137–157). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Osgood, C., Suci, G., & Tannenbaum, P. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Quigley, K.S., & Bernston, G.G. (1990). Autonomic origins of cardiac responses to nonsignal stimuli in the rat. Behavioral Neuroscience, 104, 751–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reyes del Paso, G.A., & Vila, J. (1998). The continuing problem of incorrect heart rate estimation in psychophysiological studies: An off-line solution for cardiotachometer users. Biological Psychology, 48, 269–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, J.A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J.A., & Feldman Barrett, L. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 805–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, J.A., & Mehrabian, A. (1977). Evidence for a three-factor theory of emotions. Journal of Research in Personality, 11, 273–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Navarro, J.P., Martínez-Selva, J.M., & Román, F. (2006). Uncovering the relationship between defence and orienting in emotion: Cardiac reactivity to unpleasant pictures. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 61, 34–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sánchez-Navarro, J.P., Martínez-Selva, J.M., Román, F, & Torrente, G. (2006). The effect of content and physical properties of affective pictures on emotional responses. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 9, 145–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlosberg, H. (1954). Three dimensions of emotion. Psychological Review, 61, 81–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sokolov, E.N. (1963). Perception and the conditioned reflex. Oxford, UK: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Svensson, E. (1978). Mood: Its structure and measurement. Goteborg Psychological Reports, 8, 1–19.Google Scholar
Turpin, G. (1986) Effects of stimulus intensity on autonomic responding: The problem of differentiating orienting and defense reflexes. Psychophysiology, 23, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Venables, P.H., & Christie, M.J. (1980). Electrodermal activity. In Martin, I. & Venables, P.H. (Eds.), Techniques in psychophysiology (pp. 3–67). New York: WileyGoogle Scholar
Vila, J., Sánchez, M., Ramírez, I., Fernández, M.C., Cobos, P., Rodríguez, S., Muñoz, M.A., Tormo, M.P., Herrero, M., Segarra, P., Pastor, M.C., Montañés, S., Poy, R., & Moltó, J. (2001). El Sistema Internacional de Imágenes Afectivas (IAPS): Adaptación española. Segunda parte. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 54, 635–657.Google Scholar
Vrana, S.R., Spence, E.L., & Lang, P.J. (1988). The startle probe response: A new measure of emotion? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 487–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodworth, R.S., & Schlosberg, H. (1954). Experimental psychology. (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. (Spanish version: Psicología experimental. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 1971).Google Scholar
Wundt, W. (1896). Outlines of psychology. Leipzig: Englemann.Google Scholar