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The Tax Censuses and the Decline of the Serf Population in Imperial Russia, 1833-1858

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Steven L. Hoch  and
Wilson R. Augustine
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The demographic development of the serf population in imperial Russia, particularly its rate of natural growth during the thirty years preceding the emancipation in 1861, has been the subject of considerable controversy. On the basis of data from the tax censuses (revizii), abolitionists sontended that the serf population was dying out, implying that the death rate consistently exceeded the birth rate. Many Soviet historians and demographers have subsequently advanced this view, seeing a demographic crisis as one dimension of the collapse of the feudal serf system. A Western scholar, Professor Daniel Field, has recently lent his support to this interpretation. But was serfdom so socially oppressive or economically stifling as to affect natural population growth adversely? Other contemporary statisticians and later historians—either less opposed to serfdom or more skeptical about the accuracy of population data—have avoided the issue.

Type
Articles
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 38 , Issue 3 , September 1979 , pp. 403 - 425
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1979

References

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4. Semevskii, V. I., Krest'ianskii vopros v Rossii, vol. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1888), pp. 568–70 Google Scholar; Struve, P. B., Krepostnoe khoziaistvo (Moscow, 1913), p. 145 Google Scholar; Kornilov, A., Kurs istorii Rossii XIX v., part 3 (Moscow, 1914), pp. 23–25 Google Scholar; Ryndziunskii, P. G., “Vymiralo li krepostnoe krest'ianstvo pered reformoi 1861 g.?,” Voprosy istorii, 1967, no. 7, pp. 54–70.Google Scholar

5. Rashin, Naselenie Rossii, pp. 16-118.

6. Trubnikov did attempt to calculate vital rates (Trubnikov, “Rezul'taty narodnykh perepisei,” p. 365). His results, however, must be discounted because of the poor quality of the original data. For example, his figures show that the death rate for the population as a whole in Ardatovskii uczd was only slightly above that of modern Western Europe, but, undoubtedly, it was considerably higher.

7. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii s 1649 goda, 1st series, 45 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1830-1916) (hereafter cited as PSZ I), vol. 11, no. 8, 619 (September 17, 1742).

8. Because some revizii took a number of years to complete, the so-called basic year of a reviziia, used by scholars for computation purposes, does not always conform to the fifteen-year interval. Also, on some occasions, the government calculated the fifteen years from the onset of the previous reviziia; on others, from its completion.

9. PSZ I, vol. 15, no. 11, 364 (November 28, 1761); vol. 31, no. 24, 635 (May 18, 1811).

10. Kabuzan, V. M., Narodonaselenie Rossii v XVIIl-pervoi polovine XIX v. (po materialam revizii) (Moscow, 1963), p. 77.Google Scholar

11. Ibid., pp. 99-104, 194-223. See also Den, V. E., Naselenie Rossii po piatoi revizii, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1902), pp. 129–234 and appendix 3.Google Scholar

12. Koppen, P. V., “Uber die Vertheilung der Bewohner Russlands nach Ständen, in der verschiedenen Provinzen,” Mémoires de l'Academic Impériale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, 6th series, vol. 7 (St. Petersburg, 1848), pp. 401–29 Google Scholar; Keppen, P. [P. V. Köppen), Deviataia reviziia: Issledovanie o chisle zhitelei v Rossii v 1851 godu (St. Petersburg, 1857).Google Scholar See also Keppen, P. I. [P. V. Köppen], “O narodnykh perepisiakh v Rossii,” Zapiski Imperatorskago russkago geograficheskago obshchestva po otdeleniiu statistiki, 6 (1889): 1–94Google Scholar (hereafter cited as Zapiski IRGO).

13. Bunge, “Izmeneniia soslovnago sostava,” pp. 1021-30.

14. There is no evidence to suggest that a massive emigration of serfs from imperial Russia took place.

15. Bunge, “Izmeneniia soslovnago sostava,” pp. 1025, 1027, 1029.

16. PSZ I, vol. 27, no. 20, 620 (February 20, 1803); Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, 2nd series, 55 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1830-84) (hereafter cited as PSZ II), vol. 17, no. 15, 462 (April 2, 1842); vol. 22, no. 21, 689 (November 8, 1847); Veshniakov, V., Krest'iane-sobstvenniki v Rossii (St. Petersburg, 1858), pp. 59–61, 70-71, 81–134 Google Scholar; “Vedomost',” ZhMVD, 1860, no. 3-4, p. 4; Sergeeva, N. I., “Obiazannye krest'iane i reforma 19 fevralia 1861 g.,” Problemy obshchestvennoi mysli i ekonomicheskaia politika Rossii XIX-XX vekov (Leningrad, 1972), p. 82.Google Scholar Obligated peasants (obiazannye krest'iane) were serfs with fixed contractual obligations and therefore na uslovnom prove. They were not counted as pomeshchich'i krest'iane or dvorovye liudi, nor were they traditionally included in figures on the “serf percent.” Therefore, they are part of the decline of serfs na obshchem krepostnom prave, to which our discussion is restricted.

17. Köppen, Deviataia reviziia, pp. 218-19; PSZ II, vol. 16, no. 14, 669 (June 19, 1841); Mel'nitskii, N., Sbornik svedenii o voenno-uchebnykh zavedeniiakh v Rossii, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1857-60), vol. 2, part 3, pp. 187 Google Scholar and 217; vol. 2, part 4, pp. 52 and 119; vol. 3, part 5, p. 141.

18. Köppen, Deviataia reviziia, p. 62.

19. Ryndziunskii, “Vymiralo li krepostnoe krest'ianstvo,” p. 66.

20. PSZ II, vol. 13, no. 11, 572 (September 30, 1838); vol. 14, no. 12, 964 (December 11, 1839).

21. PSZ II, vol. 6, no. 4, 535 (May 6, 1831), no. 4, 711 (July 17, 1831); vol. 12, no. 10, 208 (May 4, 1837); vol. 34, no. 34, 881 (September 8, 1859); vol. 37, no. 39, 009 (December 6, 1862).

22. PSZ II, vol. 11, no. 9, 053 (April 4, 1836); Istoricheskoe obozrenie piatidesiatiletnei deiatel'nosti Ministerstva gosndarstvennykh imushchestv, 1837-1887, vol. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1888), part 2, p. 80.

23. Zelenskii, Materialy: Minskaia guberniia, pp. 632-33.

24. “Obozrenie deiatel'nosti Ministerstva gosudarstvennykh imushchestv,” Sel'skoe khosiaistvo i lesovodstvo, 95, no. 4-6 (1867): 37; Ocherk piatidesiatilctnei deiatel'nosti Ministerstva gosudarstvennykh imushchestv, 1837-1887 (St. Petersburg, 1887), pp. 37 and 83.

25. Ocherk piatidesiatilctnei deiatel'nosti, p. 36; “Vedomost1,” ZhMVD, 1853, no. 3-4, p. 64; “Vedomost1,” ZhMVD, 1860, no. 3-4, p. 4. See also the annual reports of the Ministry of State Domains, published in its Zhurnal Ministerstva gosudarstvennykh imushchestv (hereafter cited as ZhMGI).

26. V. Mikhalevich, Materialy: V oronezhskaia guberniia, p. 171.

27. Istoriia udelov sa stolctie ikh sushchestvovaniia, 1797-1897, 3 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1901-2), 1: 201-4, 2: 119; Lipinskii, Materialy: Simbirskaia guberniia, pp. 307 and 339; Koppen, Deviataia reviziia, p. 126; Semenov, P., ed., Geografichesko-statisticheskii slovar1 Rossiiskoi imperii, 5 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1863-85), 3: 693–97, 4: 587-94.Google Scholar

28. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, 15 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1832, 1842, 1857 [3 editions]). (Since we used three editions of the law code, hereafter we will cite this as Svod zakonov with the edition in which the articles referred to appear enclosed in parentheses following the article number.) The reference here is to Svod zakonov, vol. 9, Zakony o sostoianiiakh, article 706 (1833), art. 1, 087 (1842), art. 1, 200 (1857).

29. Beskrovnyi, L. G., Russkaia armiia i flot v XIX vcke (Moscow, 1973), p. 546 Google Scholar; Vsepoddanneishie otchety o deistviiakh Voennago ministerstva sa 1858-1914, 57 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1861-1917). (This was an annual publication, with the year treated given in the title. Hereafter it will be cited as Vsepoddanneishie otchety za and the appropriate year.) The reference here is to Vsepoddanneishie otchety sa 1858, p. 1.

30. Skalon, D. A., ed., Stoletie Voennago ministcrstva, 1802-1902, vol. 4, part 2, book 1, section 2 (St. Petersburg, 1907), pp. 80–151 Google Scholar; Bogdanovich, et al., Istoricheskii ocherk deiatel'nosti voennago upravleniia v Rossii, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1879), appendixes 11 and 14.Google Scholar

31. Beskrovnyi, Russkaia armiia i flot, p. 70.

32. Vsepoddanneishie otchety za 1868, p. 255; Vsepoddanneishie otchety sa 1869, p. 218; Vsepoddanneishie otchety za 1870, p. 194

33. The figure includes their free sons.

34. Bogdanovich et al., Istoricheskii ocherk, appendix 15; see also Skalon, Stoletie, pp. 80-151.

35. The children of legally settled retired soldiers were free. In 1851, only 13 percent of all retired soldiers were in this category ( “Vedomost',” ZhMVD, 1853, no. 11-12, pp. 70 and 73).

36. PSZ II, vol. 31, no. 30, 877 (August 26, 1856); Bogdanovich et al., Istoricheskii ocherk, pp. 203-4 and appendix 14; Skalon, Stoletie, pp. 300 and 327.

37. Beskrovnyi, Russkaia armiia i flot, p. 16; “Svedenie,” ZhMVD, 1837, no. 25, pp. xcii, xciv; Skalon, Stoletie, p. 76. The figure for the military at the end of 1835 does not include the navy. But even if the navy were as large as one hundred thousand men, as it was on the eve of the Crimean War, this would have only a minimal effect on the results presented here.

38. PSZ II, vol. 13, no. 11, 745 (November 14, 1838).

39. Skalon, Stoletie, pp. 312-13.

40. PSZ II, vol. 8, no. 6, 323 (July 15, 1833). See also the annual Otchet Ministerstva iustitsii, 35 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1834-68) (hereafter cited as Otchet MIu).

41. PSZ II, vol. 3, no. 2, 489 (December 6, 1828); vol. 11, no. 9, 761 (December 6, 1836); vol. 17, no. 15, 492 (April 10, 1842). .

42. Skalon, Stoletie, pp. 295-302.

43. Anuchin, E. N., “Izsledovaniia o protsente soslannykh v Sibir’ v period 1827-1846 g.,” Zapiski IRGO, 3 (1873): 71 Google Scholar; Iadrintsev, N. M., “Statisticheskie materialy k istorii ssylki v Sibir,” Zapiski IRGO, 6 (1889): 346–47.Google Scholar

44. Given the large sex imbalance in the exiled population, the fact that few families accompanied convicts to Siberia, and the assumption that life expectancy at the average age of exile was less than twenty-two years, it is safe to conclude that only a negligible number of exiles of serf origin present in Siberia in 1858 had been sent there prior to the eighth reviziia.

45. Svod sakonov, vol. 9, arts. 674-80 (1833), arts. 1, 148-84 (1857).

46. PSZ I, vol. 20, no. 14, 294 (April 6, 1775); Semevskii, V. I., Krcst'iane v tsarstvovanie Imperatritsy Ekateriny II, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1903), pp. 389–90 Google Scholar; Blum, Lord and Peasant, p. 474.

47. PSZ II, vol. 18, no. 16, 849 (May 13, 1843).

48. Ibid., vol. 19, no. 17, 977 (June 12, 1844), no. 17, 985 (June 12, 1844). See also vol. 9, no. 9, 637 (October 23, 1836).

49. Svod sakonov, vol. 5: Ustavy o podatiakh, art. 485 (1857); PSZ II, vol. 7, no. 5, 842 (December 22, 1832).

50. Köppen, Deviataia revisiia, pp. 6, 7, 21, 62, 88, 95, 100, 127, 142, 144, 152, 159; see also p. 103 and Baranovich, Materialy: Riasanskaia guberniia, p. 144.

51. Trubnikov, “Rezul'taty,” p. 360.

52. Lipinskii, Materialy: Simbirskaia guberniia, p. 264.

53. “Romanovo-Borisoglebskii uezd, Iaroslavskoi gubernii,” ZhMVD, 1853, no. 7-8, p. 8.

54. In 1857, there were 1, 961 male serfs in Kaluga guberniia who had been freely manumitted or ruled free by a court (M. Poprotskii, Materialy: Kalushskaia guberniia, part 1, p. 284). Between 1855 and 1859, 709 serfs in Minsk guberniia were similarly freed (Zelenskii, Materialy: Minskaia guberniia, pp. 528-29); see also A. Korev, Materialy: Vilenskaia guberniia, p. 351.

55. Povalishin, A., Riasanskie pomeshchiki i ikh krepostnye (Riazan, 1903), pp. 159–74.Google Scholar

56. Khovanskii, N. F., “Pomeshchiki i krest'iane Saratovskoi gubernii,” Materialy po krepostnomu pravu: Saratovskaia guberniia (Saratov, 1911), p. 158 Google Scholar; see also pp. 60 and 75.

57. Recruitment, exile, purchase, and some confiscations—all belonging to this group —have already been discussed (see Svod sakonov, vol. 9, arts. 1, 200, 1, 202-4, 1, 205[2] and [6] [1857]).

58. Svodzakonov, vol. 9, art. 957 V (1842), arts. 544, 1, 040, 1, 042(4), 1, 078, 1, 107, 1, 185- 97, 1, 199, 1, 201, and 1, 205 (1857); PSZ I, vol. 30, no. 23, 806 (August 24, 1809); PSZ II, vol. 2, no. 906 (February 15, 1827), no. 1, 444 (October 5, 1827); vol. 3, no. 1, 696 (January 10, 1828), no. 2, 052 (May 24, 1828), no. 2, 245 (August 20, 1828), no. 2, 378 (October 25, 1828); vol. 7, no. 5, 425 (June 9, 1832); vol. 8, no. 6, 163 (May 2, 1833); vol. 10, no. 7, 982 (March 20, 1835); vol. 11, no. 9, 203 (May 21, 1836); vol. 16, no. 14, 152 (January 2, 1841); vol. 23, no. 21, 929 (January 26, 1848); vol. 24, no. 23, 508 (September 20, 1849); vol. 29, no. 28, 846 (December 20, 1854).

59. See Otchet MIu for the years 1834-58.

60. Svod zakonov, vol. 9, art. 1, 193 (1857).

61. Köppen, Deviataia revisiia, pp. 7, 21, 62, 88, 95, 100, 103, 127, 142, 149, 152, 156.

62. Izvestiia Tambovskoi uchenoi arkhivnoi komissii, 52 (1906): 1-76.

63. Khovanskii, Pomeshchiki i krest'iane, pp. 115-49.

64. Ibid., pp. 77-115.

65. “Izvlechenie iz otcheta Ministerstva gosudarstvennykh imushchestv,” ZhMGI, 9 (1843), part 1, Vedomost’ no. 8.

66. Perkovskii, “Krizis demograficheskogo vosproizvodstva,” p. 189.

67. Svod zakonov, vol. 9, arts. 462-63 (1857).

68. PSZ II, vol. 11, no. 9, 203 (May 21, 1836); vol. 14, no. 13, 012 (December 20, 1839).

69. Troinitskii, Krepostnoe naselcnie, p. 67. See also Shebunin, A, “K istorii bor'by po voprosu o prodazhe krest'ian bez zemli,” Arkhiv istorii truda v Rossii, 10 vols. (Petrograd, 1921-23), 6-7: 110–29, 8: 104-20.Google Scholar

70. PSZ II, vol. 20, no. 19, 086 (June 11, 1845).

71. “Svedenie,” ZhMVD, 1837, no. 25, p. 3.

72. Köppen, Deviataia reviziia, pp. 113 and 138.

73. See Otchet MIu for the years 1834-58, except 1850.

74. Kots, E, “Pobegi pomeshchich'ikh krest'ian v Nikolaevskuiu epokhu,” Arkhiv istorii truda v Rossii, 5: 3–29;Google Scholar Semenov, N. P., Osvobozhdenie krest'ian v tsarstvovanie Imperatora Alexandra II, vol. 3 (St. Petersburg, 1892), part 2, pp. 392–93 Google Scholar; Povalishin, Riazanskie pomeshchiki, pp. 292-300; Khovanskii, Pomeshchiki i krest'ianc, pp. 149-57. See also any of the 25 volumes produced by the Glavnyi General'nyi Shtab (Materialy) cited in note 3.

75. PSZ II, vol. 14, no. 12, 362 (May 19, 1839).

76. Kots, “Pobegi,” p. 23.

77. Many of the statutes first establishing these forms of manumission were actually extensions of specific rulings by the senate (see Blum, Lord and Peasant, p. 292).

78. Semevskii, Krest'iane, pp. 10-15.

79. Svod zakonov, vol. 9, art. 546 (1833).

80. Svod zakonov, vol. 9, arts. 543, 560 (1833). See also arts. 550-59 (1833), and PSZ I, vol. 21, no. 15, 198 (July 28, 1781).

81. “Obozrenie khoda i deistvii kholeinoi epidemii v Rossii v 1847 godu,” ZhMVD, 1848, no. 9, p. 476; and “Obozrenie khoda i deistvii kholernoi epidemii v Rossii v techenie 1848 goda,” ibid., 1849, no. 9, p. 319.

82. “Obozrenie … 1847,” pp. 476-82; “Obozrenie … 1848,” pp. 319-28.

83. Kabuzan, Ismcncniia v razmeshchenii nasclcniia, pp. 155-66. Our attempt to calculate this on the basis of the figures published by the Ministry of Internal Affairs revealed that serfs accounted for 43 percent of the cholera deaths, while on the eve of the epidemic they comprised roughly 39 percent of the total population. This would mean that disproportionately thirty thousand more serfs of both sexes died. There was no way, however, to test the validity of the original data, although urban deaths were probably reported better or more accurately than rural deaths.

84. PSZ I, vol. 33, no. 25, 882 (June 20, 1815); PSZ II, vol. 31, no. 30, 877 (August 26, 1856).

85. Bogdanovich et al., Istoricheskii ocherk, appendixes 11 and 14; Skalon, Stoletie, p. 209.

86. McGrew, R. E., Russia and the Cholera, 1823-1832 (Madison and Milwaukee, 1965), pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

87. PSZ II, vol. 5, no. 3, 950 (September 24, 1830), no. 3, 990 (October 10, 1830); vol. 6, no. 4, 268 (January 17, 1831); vol. 24, no. 23, 198 (April 25, 1849), no. 23, 463 (August 19, 1849) (recruitment); vol. 6, no. 4, 462 (March 30, 1831), no. 4, 519 (April 28, 1831); vol. 9, no. 7, 599 (December 1, 1834) (fines and arrears); vol. 8, no. 6, 411 (September 1, 1833); vol. 9, no. 7, 554 (November 19, 1834), no. 7, 700 (December 28, 1834) (customs duties); vol. 8, no. 6, 416 (September 10, 1833) ﹛revizskie skazki). The reviziia legislation of June 1833 required that all skazki for European Russia be filed by May 1, 1834. After the crop failure in the autumn of 1833, the government delayed the beginning of the reviziia in eleven of the most affected provinces until September 1, 1834. But even in the provinces where the reviziia was not postponed, some of the effects of the poor harvest were undoubtedly felt prior to the registration of the population. See ibid., vol. 8, no. 6, 563 (November 12, 1833) (salaries); vol. 9, no. 6, 950 (April 3, 1834) (hunting fowl); vol. 5, no. 3, 903 (September 9, 1830), no. 4, 051 (October 28, 1830); vol. 6, no. 4, 715 (July 21, 1831); vol. 23, no. 22, 483 (August 3, 1848); vol. 24, no. 23, 182 (April 15, 1849), no. 23, 299 (June 7, 1849) (loans); vol. 23, no. 22, 912 (January 11, 1849) (salt). See also Kahan, Arcadius, “Natural Calamities and their Effect upon Food Supply in Russia (An Introduction to a Catalogue),” Jahrbiicher fur Geschichte Osteuropas, 16, no. 3 (September 1968): 358–73.Google Scholar

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91. PSZ II, vol. S, no. 3, 807 (July 19, 1830), no. 3, 981 (October 6, 1830); vol. 6, no. 4, 277 (January 30, 1831); vol. 8, no. 6, 668 (December 23, 1833).

92. Skalon, Stoletie, vol. 4, part 2, book 1, section 3 (St. Petersburg, 1912), pp. 255 and 263. See also PSZ II, vol. 9, no. 7, 374 (August 30, 1834); vol. 26, no. 25, 352 (June 29, 1851); and Perkovskii, “Krizis demograficheskogo vosproizvodstva,” pp. 187-88.