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Education of the Non-Russian Peoples in the USSR, 1917—1967: An Essay

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Yaroslav Bilinsky
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In Any Multinational State the language and content of elementary and secondary education are liable to become controversial political issues. The dedicated nationalist will be concerned about safeguarding the purity of his people's heritage. On the other hand, many parents want their children to achieve responsible positions that call for higher education. Equal access to universities and technical institutes by students of all nationalities then becomes the touchstone of equitable educational policy. This essay seeks to evaluate briefly Soviet educational policy toward the non-Russian peoples that together make up nearly one half of the total population of the USSR (454 percent in 1959).

The problem of educating constituent peoples and ethnic, cultural, or racial minorities equitably is, of course, not limited to the Soviet Union. The classic example of a genuinely multilingual state, with four official languages, is Switzerland. But even in that country, higher education is available only in French and German. Nonetheless, despite their linguistic differences the Swiss remain exceptionally attached to their little country, which was founded in 1291. Not so united is Belgium, a creation of the nineteenth century. In February 1968, for the first time in that country's history, the long-smoldering language dispute brought down a government: the division of the country into Wallonia and Flanders, with a theoretically bilingual Brussels enclave, has not worked out smoothly, nor has the division of Louvain University into French- and Dutch-speaking sections.

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Articles
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Slavic Review , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , September 1968 , pp. 411 - 437
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1968

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References

1 Chambers, M. M., ed., Universities of the World: Outside U.SA. (Washington, D.C., 1950), p. 809 Google Scholar. This and the following references in comparative education are by the courtesy of Professor Anthony Scarangello, of the University of Delaware College of Education.

2 Hans, Nicholas, Comparative Education: A Study of Educational Factors and Traditions (3rd rev. ed.; London, 1958), pp. 49–50 Google Scholar; Thut, I. N. and Adams, Don, Educational Patterns in Contemporary Societies (New York, 1964), pp. 224–32.Google Scholar

3 New York Times, Feb. 8, 1968, p. 5; Bowman, Albert H., “Belgium: Old Rivals Battle Over Louvain,” The Reporter, XXXVIII, No. 12 (June 13, 1968), 31–33 Google Scholar; also Hans, Comparative Education, pp. 46-47; Chambers, Universities, pp. 95-110; and UNESCO, , World Survey of Education, Vol. I: Handbook of Educational Organization and Statistics (Paris, 1955). P. 98.Google Scholar

4 John F. Cramer and George S. Browne, Contemporary Education: A Comparative Study of National Systems (New York, 1956), pp. 140-59, 351-77, esp. pp. 366-67; Hans, Comparative Education, pp. 50-51; Chambers, Universities, pp. 168-210. Also UNESCO, World Survey, I, 142.

5 Harrison, Selig S., India: The Most Dangerous Decades (Princeton, N.J., 1960), pp. 7–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Ibid., pp. 65 and 7. On recent language riots see Keesing's Contemporary Archives (1965) pp. 20, 687 ff. and (1968) p. 22, 557.

7 Harrison, India, pp. 65-66; Thut and Adams, Educational Patterns, pp. 387-421 passim; UNESCO, World Survey, I, 335.

8 See briefly on this Kolasky, John, Education in the Soviet Ukraine: A Study in Discrimination and Russification (Toronto, 1968), pp. 170–72Google Scholar, 180-83. Also Chambers, ed., Universities, pp. 308-19, 770-75, 897-900; UNESCO, World Survey, I, 186, 547, 878-79.Google Scholar

9 They are estimated at 6 percent of the total population in The Statesman's Yearbook, 1966-68, p. 893.

10 See Thut and Adams, Educational Patterns, pp. 260-97, esp. pp. 272-73 and 276. Also Hans, Comparative Education, pp. 60-61; UNESCO, World Survey, I, 169.

11 UNESCO, The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education (Paris, 1953), pp. 47-48, as cited by Kolasky, Education, pp. 168-69.

12 See Goncharov, N. K., “Rodnoe slovo v pedagogicheskoi sisteme K. D. Ushinskogo,” Sovetskaia pedagogika, XXVIII, No. 10 (Oct. 1964), 88–90 Google Scholar; Bilodid, I. K.,” Rol’ ridnoi’ movy u rozvytku osvity i kul'tury narodu,” Ukrains'ka mova i literatura v shkoli, XVII, No. 6 (June 1967), 2.Google Scholar

13 E. N. Medyns'kyi, Prosveshchenie v SSSR (Moscow, 1955), p. 47.

14 Tsentral'noe upravlenie narodnokhoziaistvennogo ucheta Gosplana SSSR, Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo SSSR: Statisticheskii sbornik (Moscow and Leningrad, 1940), p. 7. Figures refer to the territory of the USSR as of January 17, 1939.

15 See Tadeusz Pasierbiński, “Problem narodowościowy w szkolnictwie,” in J. Bohdan et al., eds., Oświata w Zwiazku Radzieckim (Warsaw, 1962), p. 200.

16 Pedagogicheskii slovar', II (Moscow, 1960), 392.

17 Witt, Nicholas De, Education and Professional Employment in the U.S.SJI. (Washington, D.C., 1961), pp. 216b and 634.Google Scholar

18 Kommunisticheskaia Akademiia, Komissiia po izucheniiu natsional'nogo voprosa, Natsional'naia politika VKP(b) v tsifrakh (Moscow, 1930), p . 280.

19 Russia, Ministerstvo narodnogo prosveshcheniia, Odnodnevnaia perepis’ nachal'nykh shkol v imperii proizvedennaia 18.I.1911 g. (8 vols.; St. Petersburg, 1914). See, e.g., Vol. VII, Pt. i, p. 19 (Orenburg educational district) and Vol. IV, Pt. 1, pp. 19-20 (Odessa educational district).

20 The universities of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Tomsk; Kiev, Kharkov, and Odessa; Vilna; and Tartu. De Witt, Education, p. 212.

21 See on this N. G. Malinovskii, “Zakonodatel'stvo ob inorodcheskoi shkole,” in G. G. Tumim and V. A. Zelenko, eds., Inorodcheskaia shkola: Sbornik statei (Petrograd, 1916), pp. 133 ff.

22 See Tscntral'noe statisticheskoe upravlenie pri Sovete ministrov SSSR, Itogi vsesoiuznoi percpisi naseleniia 1959 goda: USSR (Moscow, 1962), Table 26, p. 89. It excludes people of fifty years and older and docs not correlate literacy with nationality, only with the populations of the Union republics.

23 Tsentr. stat. upravl. pri Sov. min. SSSR, Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo (Moscow, 1956), pp. 32-33.

24 See De Witt, Education, p. 23.

25 Tsentr. stat. upravl. pri Sov. min. SSSR, Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1964 g. (Moscow, 1965), pp. 676-77; and Ministerstvo finansov SSSR, Biudzhetnoe upravlenie, Gosudarstvennyi biudzhet SSSR i biudzhety Soiuznykh Respublik (Moscow, 1966), p . 23.

26 Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1965 g. (Moscow, 1966), pp. 686-87; Min. finansov, p. 23.

27 Cramer and Browne, Contemporary Education, p. 379.

28 In 1965. See Nar. khoz. SSSR, 1965, pp. 686-87. In mid-1965 the population of the RSFSR was almost exactly one half the total USSR population (126, 200, 000 out of 230, 500, 000), Nar. khoz. SSSR, 1964, p. 9.

29 Kolasky, Education, p. 54.

30 UNESCO, World Survey of Education, Vol. II: Primary Education (Paris, 1958), Table 15, pp. 58-60; Vol.III: Secondary Education (New York, 1961), Table 12, pp. 81-84.

31 De Witt, Education, Table I-i, p. 37.

32 UNESCO, World Survey of Education, Vol. IV: Higher Education (Paris, 1966), Table 3, p. 67.

33 Ibid., Table 28, pp. 38-39.

34 According to Korol, Alexander, Soviet Research and Development: Its Organization, Personnel and Funds (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), p. 45 Google Scholar, in 1961-63 the ministerial sector included about 75 percent of the “R & D” institutions and well over 500, 000 professional employees (80 percent of all R & D personnel with higher education). The general academies of sciences, on the other hand, in 1963 employed only 44, 503 scientific workers (p. 24).

35 On Jan. 1, 1963 the total of scientific workers in all republican academies was 24474; in the USSR Academy, 20, 029. See Korol, Soviet Research, Table 3, p. 24.

36 G. I. Fed'kin, Pravovye voprosy organizatsii nauchnoi raboty v SSSR (Moscow, 1958), p. 112; Korol, Soviet Research, pp. 23-25.

37 See Graham, Loren R., The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-32 (Princeton, N.J., 1967), pp. 75 ffGoogle Scholar. Also PolonsTca-Vasylenko, N., Vkraïns'ka Akademiia Nauk: Narys istoriï, Vol. I (Munich, 1955)Google Scholar. The Ukrainian Academy of Sciences was established in November 1918, when the Ukraine was under Hetman Skoropads'kyi, not in 1919, as alleged by the Bolsheviks and erroneously repeated by Korol, Soviet Research, p. 24. The Belorussian academy was established on Jan. l, 1929 (Korol gives the year 1928). The academies of the other republics were established between 1943 (Uzbek) and 1961 (Moldavian).

38 Korol, Soviet Research, p. 38.

39 Nats. pol. VKP(b), pp. 278-79, 294.

40 See History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks): Short Course (New York, 1939), pp. 321-22.

41 See Bilinsky, Y., The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (New Brunswick, N.J., 1964), pp. 11–26 Google Scholar; Fedyshyn, Oleh S., “Khrushchev's ‘Leap Forward': National Assimilation in the USSR after Stalin,” Southwestern Social Science Quarterly (June 1967). PP. 34–43.Google Scholar

42 Frank Lorimer, The Population of the Soviet Union: History and Prospects (Geneva, 1946), Table 25, pp. 63-64, gives data on the percentage of the titular nationality and that of the Russian in each republic in 1926. Percentage of Jews from Bol'shaia sovetskaia entsildopediia (1st ed.), XXIV, 86.

43 See [Tsentr. stat. upravl. SSSR], Narodnoe prosveshchenie v SSSR, 1926/27 uchebnyi god (Moscow, 1929), Pt. V, Tables 2-4, pp. 134-43. The totals and percentages were calculated by the present author.

44 Kult. str., 1940, p. 73.

45 Kult. str., 1956, pp. 186-87. More precise figures in Stat, upravlenie BSSR, Narodnoe khoziaistvo Belorusskoi SSR (Moscow, 1957), p . 285.

46 These and the following nationality percentages in 1959 were taken from Itogi perepisi SSSR, Table 54, pp. 202-8.

47 Literatura i mastatstva (Minsk), Sept. 28, 1965; as cited by P. K. Urban, “Vozrozhdenie ‘natsionalizma’ v istoriografii BSSR,” in Institut po izucheniiu SSSR (Munich), Soobshcheniia, No. 12 (1967), p. 50. Partly confirmed by Kolasky, Education, p. 72.

48 Kult. str., 1940, p . 73.

49 Tsentr. stat. upravl. pri Sov. min. Azerbaidzhanskoi SSR, Azerbaidzhan v tsifrakh: Kratkii statisticheskii sbornik (Baku, 1964), pp. 192-93.

50 See V. Stanley Vardys, “Soviet Nationality Policy Since the XXII Party Congress,” Russian Review, XXIV (Oct. 1965), 334; Kolasky, Education, p. 206.

51 “Voprosy postavlennye zhizn'iu,” Uchitel'skaia gazeta, Aug. 2, 1958; S. I. Karavans'kyi, “Pro odnu politychnu pomylku,” in Viacheslav Chornovil, ed., Lykho z rozumu: Portrety 20 zlochyntsiv (Paris, 1967), p. 119 (collection of underground materials, apparently authentic); Kolasky, Education, p. 75.

52 Azerbaidzhan v tsifrakh (1964), pp. 192-93; Kult. str., 1956, pp. 186-87.

53 Rein Taagepera, “Vengeance des berceaux Soviet Style,” forthcoming in Soviet Studies.

54 Bilinsky, Y, “The Soviet Education Laws of 1958-9 and Soviet Nationality Policy,” Soviet Studies, XIV (Oct. 1962), 138–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar and passim.

55 Allakhiarov, F. G., Sblizhenie kul'tur sotsialisticheskikh natsii v period stroitel'stva kommunizma (Baku, 1966), p. 124.Google Scholar

56 Azerbaidzhan v tsifrakh (1964), pp. 192-93.

57 Nar. prosv., 26/27, ?t. V, Tables 2-4, pp. 134-43; Kult. str., 1940, p. 73; Kult. str., 1956, pp. 186-87; Tsentr. stat. upravl. pri Sov. min. Gruzinskoi SSR, Narodnoe khoziaistvo Gruzinskoi SSR v 1961 g.: Stat, ezhegodnik (Tiflis, 1963), p. 466, and Nar. khoz. Gruz. SSR v 1964 g. (Tiflis, 1965), p . 343.

58 Lorimer, Population, pp. 55 and 59 for 1926 figures. For 1897, Pedagogicheskii slovar', Vol. II, under “Natsional'nye shkoly.“

59 Nar. prosv., 26/27, Pt. V, Tables 2-4, pp. 134-43.

60 Kult. str., 1940, p. 74.

61 Kult. str., 1956, pp. 186-87; Narodnoe obrazovanie Turkmenskoi SSR za 40 let (Ashkhabad, 1957), p . 21; Tsentr. stat. upravl. SSSR-Stat. upravl. Turkmenskoi SSR, Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo Turkmenskoi SSR: Stat, sbornik (Ashkhabad, 1960), pp. 76-77.

62 Sh. Annaklychev, “Rol’ promyshlennykh tsentrov v protsesse sblizheniia natsional'nostei (na primere Turkmenskoi SSR),” Sovetskaia etnografiia, No. 6, 1964 (Nov.-Dec), p. 33.

63 Cf. Kult. str. Turkmenskoi SSR, pp. 76-77; and Itogi perepisi: Turkmenskaia SSR (Moscow, 1963), p . 132.

64 Kult. str., 1940, p. 77.

65 Kult. str. RSFSR (Moscow, 1958), p. 207.

66 Tsentr. stat. upravl. Tatarskoi ASSR, Tatarskaia ASSR za 40 let: Stat, sbornik (Kazan, 1960), p. 30. In 1962/63 only 6 percent of Tatar pupils living in the fifteen cities of the republic attended Tatar-language schools. Kolasky, Education, p. 34.

67 Voprosy postavlennye zhizn'iu” (see n. 51).

68 Tscntr. stat. upravl. pri Sov. min. Litovskoi SSR, Prosveshchenie i kul'tura Litovskoi SSR: Stat, sbornik (Vilna, 1964), pp. 44-45; Narodnoe khoziaistvo Litovskoi SSR v 1965 g.: Stat, sbornik (Vilna, 1966), pp. 240-41.

69 Kult. str., 1956, pp. 186-87; Eesti RSV Rahva majandus, etc., Narodnoe khoziaistvo Estonskoi SSR (Tallinn, 1957), p. 228; Bilinsky, “Soviet Education Laws,” passim; V. Stanley Vardys, “The Baltic Peoples,” Problems of Communism, XVI, No. 5 (Sept.-Oct. 1967), 60.

70 Vardys, “Baltic Peoples,” p. 6i.

71 For evidence, see Nicholas De Witt, Education, p. 113 (Uzbek SSR, 1960); V. Stanley Vardys, “Soviet Colonialism in the Baltic States, 1940-65,” Baltic Review, No. 29 (June 1965), pp. 23-24; Kolasky, Education, pp. 64-65 (Ukraine, 1956 and 1964). Russian-language instruction in non-Russian schools starts with grade 2 or grade 1, depending on the republic.

72 E. Allworth, “The Changing Intellectual and Literary Community,” in E. Allworth, ed., Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule (New York, 1967), p. 393.

73 Elizabeth E. Bacon, Central Asians Under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), pp. 146, 171. Soviet data indicate that the problem has been solved in Kazakhstan. In 1958/59 even in the rural schools girls numbered 47 percent of the enrollment in grades 8-10. Admittedly, no breakdown is provided according to nationality of pupils. See Statisticheskoe upravlenie Kazakhskoi SSR, Kul'tumoe stroitel'stvo Kazakhskoi SSR: Stat, sbornik (Alma-Ata, 1960), pp. 60-61. For more precise and recent data see K. A. Aimanov (Kazakh SSR Minister of Education), “Razvitie narodnogo obrazovaniia v Kazakhstane,” Sovetshaia pedagogika, XXXI, No. 5 (May 1967), 29.

74 See V. Stanley Vardys, “Soviet Nationality Policy,” p. 334. The original source is N. Dzhandil'din, “Voprosy internatsional'nogo vospitaniia trudiashchikhsia v sovremennykh usloviiakh,” Voprosy filosofii, XV, No. 6 (June 1961), 8. They number 27 percent of all ethnic Kazakh students.

75 Harry Lipset has attempted to reconstruct the number of pupils studying in their native languages from the number of school textbooks in various languages printed for 1964/65- His results, while occasionally less precise than mine, encompass all Union republics. In general, his and my data are very close. See his article, “The Status of National Minority Languages in Soviet Education,” Soviet Studies, XIX (Oct. 1967), 181- 89.

76 See “Report of [the Communist Party of Canada] Delegation to Ukraine: Central Committee Meeting—September 16, 17, and 18, 1967,” Viewpoint (Discussion Bulletin issued by the Central Executive Committee, Communist Party of Canada, Toronto, Ont.), V, No. 1 (Jan. 1968), 1-13; Viacheslav Chornovil, ed., The Crime of Thought (New York, forthcoming), see especially the Karavans'kyi papers (I have read the book in the Ukrainian original); and Kolasky, Education, pp. 23-24, 28-32, 34, 72, 74, and passim.

77 For some documentation see my “The Rulers and the Ruled,” Problems of Communism, XVI, No. 5 (Sept.-Oct. 1967), 17-19. Also the editorial “Leninskaia druzhba narodov,” Pravda, Sept. 5, 1965, p. 1.

78 Nats. pol. VKP(b), pp. 288-89.

79 De Witt, Education, p. 358b.

80 Nats. pol. VKP(b), pp. 288-89.

81 Said Svetlana Alliluyeva: “ … I know about restrictions in universities and in the institutes when very talented Jewish young people sometimes can, sometimes are not adopted [admitted] and instead of them people of other nationalities are adopted but who are less talented.” New York Times, April 27, 1967, p. 18; the reference is courtesy of Professor Erich Goldhagen.

82 De Witt, Education, p. 358a.

83 Mandel’ A. Binder, Gosudarstvenno-pravovye problemy vzaimopomoshchi sovetskikh narodov (Alma-Ata, 1967), pp. 328-29. The work bears the imprint “Akademiia nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, Institut filosofii i prava.“

84 Ibid., pp. 348-49.

85 Ibid., pp. 349-50, with concrete examples.

86 Ibid., p. 349.

87 See ibid., pp. 343-48, for an excellent discussion with many recent figures.

88 M. Makhmutov, “Za novye uspekhy narodnogo obrazovaniia v Tatarii,” Sovetskoi Tatarii 40 let (Kazan, 1960), p. 170.

89 Sh. Mukhamed'iarov et al., “Vysshee obrazovanie i nauka v Tatarii za 40 let,” in ibid., p. 138.

90 Ibid., p. 142.

91 Ibid., pp. 143-44.

92 Ibid., pp. 141, 144.

93 De Witt, Education, p. 357a.

94 I have examined the Dovidnyk dlia vstupnykiv do xjyshchykh uchbovykh zakladiv Uhra'ins'koi RSR na 1965 rik (Kiev, 1965), and its successor volume for 1966 (Kiev, 1966).

95 See Literatura i mastatstva (Minsk), Sept. 29, 1965; as cited by Urban, pp. 48-49 (see note 47).

96 Education Minister Udovychenko's declaration to the Canadian Communist Party delegation, “Report of Delegation to Ukraine,” p. 3; E. Babenko-Pivtoradni and L. Zuyeva, “After the Anxieties of Competition,” Radians'ka Ukraina, Sept. 27, 1967, p. 4, as translated in Digest of the Soviet Ukrainian Press, Nov. 1967, p. 23 (referring to 1967/68). See also Kolasky, Education, p. 137.

97 Mary A. K. Matossian, The Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia (Leiden, 1962), p. 190.

98 Vysshee obrazovanie v SSSR (Moscow, 1961), p. 70.

99 “Za dal'neishii rastsvet kul'tury kazakhskogo naroda,” editorial in Kazakhstanskaia pravda, Jan. 31, 1957, p. 4.

100 Dotsent M. Rakhmanov, Director of the Bukhara Pedagogical Institute, in Pravda Vostoka, Feb. 11, 1958, p. 2.

101 De Witt, Education, p. 357a, citing Sovetskaia Estonia, Jan. 31, 1957.

102 “Voprosy postavlennye zhizn'iu,” Uchitel'skaia gazeta, Aug. 2, 1958, p. 2. This state of affairs had been criticized at the Tatar Party obkom meeting.

103 See Pravda, June 13, 1953; Radians'ka Ukraina, June 28, 1953 (editorial); or Bilinsky, Second Soviet Republic, pp. 166, 233 ff., esp. 239.

104 de Witt, Education, p. 357a. The quote is from Sovetskaia Kirgiziia, Nov. 4, 1957.

105 Tsentr. stat. upravl. pri Sov. min. Kirgizskoi SSR, Narodnoe khoziaistvo Kirgizskoi SSR v 1960 godu: Stat, ezhegodnik (Frunze, 1961), p. 230.

106 See Chornovil, ed., Lykho z rozumu, p. 129 (see n. 51). See also Chornovil's letter to the procurator of the Ukrainian SSR et al., printed in Novy Shliakh (Winnipeg), Nov. 11, 1967, p. 14.

107 “Petition to the Procurator of the UkrSSR by Citizen Sviatoslav Karavans'kyi, resident in Odessa, a t …, “ reprinted in Chornovil, ed., Lykho z rozumu, pp. 110-15. It has been translated in Kolasky, Education, pp. 222-24.

108 “Report of Delegation to Ukraine,” p. 5.

109 There are, of course, exceptions to this rule. The article “Medical Services in Central Asia and Kazakhstan,” Central Asian Review, XI (1963), 39-40, tells of genuine efforts to train doctors from among indigenous students in Central Asia. Many of them, especially graduates from non-Russian schools, failed in such subjects as physics, and the standards had to be lowered to attract additional indigenous students. It appears, however, that country doctors of other nationalities were difficult to recruit and even more difficult to keep.

110 Kolasky, Education, pp. 125-29, 139, 155-56.

111 See Table XXIV and Appendix I, ibid., pp. 133 and 213.

112 See the lists of institutions approved by those bodies on Aug. 20, 1956, in A. V. Topchiev, ed., Nauchnye kadry v SSSR: Sbornik dokumentov i spravochnikh materialov (Moscow, 1959), pp. 171-92, and a statistical summary of those lists in Kolasky, Education, Table XX, p. 126.

113 See “Polozhenie o Vysshei Attestatsionnoi Komissii po prisuzhdeniu uchenykh stepenei i zvanii pri Ministerstve Vysshego Obrazovaniia SSSR,” of Aug. 20, 1956, Arts. 1 (i) and 2, in Topchiev, ed., p. 168. Korol, Soviet Research, p. 94, describes the Commission in 1959 as consisting of 67 expert subcommissions meeting twice a month, with 68 academicians, 93 corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences, 365 professors (and doctors of science), 188 candidates of science (and docents), and 62 industrial specialists.

114 See “Polozhenie…,” Art. 1 (b) and (v) in Topchiev, ed., p. 167; and Kolasky, Educaion, pp. 139, 154-56.

115 Kolasky, Education, p. 116.

116 pravda, Aug. 4, 1966. See also the comments in Binder (see n. 83), p. 342, who stresses that the measure was taken in the interest of “further improving the leadership of public education.“

117 “ O mcrakh po uluchsheniiu podgotovki spetsialistov i sovershenstvovaniiu rukovodstva vysshim i srednim spetsial'nym obrazovaniem v strane,” Vestnik vysshei shholy, XXIV, No. 9 (Sept. 1966), 4; also Pravda, Sept. 9, 1966, p. 1.

118 Kolasky, Education, p. 207.

119 [“On Measures for Further Improving the Work of the General-Education Secondary School“], Pravda, Nov. 19, 1966, pp. 1-2, or Current Digest of the Soviet Press, XVIII, No. 46 (Dec. 11, 1966), 6-8. Comments in Kolasky, Education, p. 66.

120 The Ukrainian SSR Ministry of Education allegedly resisted hints from Moscow that in the interests of overworked students Ukrainian should not be taught in Russianlanguage schools in the Ukraine. See Kolasky, Education, p. 74.

121 Richard Pipes, “The Forces of Nationalism,” Problems of Communism, XIII, No. 1 (Jan.-Feb. 1964), p. 6.3