Starch phosphorylase from Corynebacterium callunae is a dimeric protein in which each mol of 90 kDa subunit contains 1 mol pyridoxal 5′-phosphate as an active-site cofactor. To determine the mechanism by which phosphate or sulfate ions bring about a greater than 500-fold stabilization against irreversible inactivation at elevated temperatures (≥50 °C), enzyme/oxyanion interactions and their role during thermal denaturation of phosphorylase have been studied. By binding to a protein site distinguishable from the catalytic site with dissociation constants of Ksulfate = 4.5 mM and Kphosphate ≈ 16 mM, dianionic oxyanions induce formation of a more compact structure of phosphorylase, manifested by (a) an increase by about 5% in the relative composition of the α-helical secondary structure, (b) reduced 1H/2H exchange, and (c) protection of a cofactor fluorescence against quenching by iodide. Irreversible loss of enzyme activity is triggered by the release into solution of pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, and results from subsequent intermolecular aggregation driven by hydrophobic interactions between phosphorylase subunits that display a temperature-dependent degree of melting of secondary structure. By specifically increasing the stability of the dimer structure of phosphorylase (probably due to tightened intersubunit contacts), phosphate, and sulfate, this indirectly (1) preserves a functional active site up to ≈50 °C, and (2) stabilizes the covalent protein cofactor linkage up to ≈70 °C. The effect on thermostability shows a sigmoidal and saturatable dependence on the concentration of phosphate, with an apparent binding constant at 50 °C of ≈25 mM. The extra stability conferred by oxyanion–ligand binding to starch phosphorylase is expressed as a dramatic shift of the entire denaturation pathway to a ≈20 °C higher value on the temperature scale.

The biotin holoenzyme synthetases (BHS) are essential enzymes in all organisms that catalyze post-translational linkage of biotin to biotin-dependent carboxylases. The primary sequences of a large number of these enzymes are now available and homologies are found among all. The glycine-rich sequence, GRGRXG, constitutes one of the homologous regions in these enzymes and, based on its similarity to sequences found in a number of mononucleotide binding enzymes, has been proposed to function in ATP binding in the BHSs. In the Escherichia coli enzyme, the only member of the family for which a three-dimensional structure has been determined, the conserved sequence is found in a partially disordered surface loop. Mutations in the sequence have previously been isolated and characterized in vivo. In this work these single-site mutants, G115S, R118G, and R119W, of the E. coli BHS have been purified and biochemically characterized with respect to binding of small molecule substrates and the intermediate in the biotinylation reaction. Results of this characterization indicate that, rather than functioning in ATP binding, this glycine-rich sequence is required for binding the substrate biotin and the intermediate in the biotinylation reaction, biotinyl-5′-AMP. These results are of general significance for understanding structure-function relationships in biotin holoenzyme synthetases.

A challenge in computational protein folding is to assemble secondary structure elements—helices and strands—into well-packed tertiary structures. Particularly difficult is the formation of β-sheets from strands, because they involve large conformational searches at the same time as precise packing and hydrogen bonding. Here we describe a method, called Geocore-2, that (1) grows chains one monomer or secondary structure at a time, then (2) disconnects the loops and performs a fast rigid-body docking step to achieve canonical packings, then (3) in the case of intrasheet strand packing, adjusts the side-chain rotamers; and finally (4) reattaches loops. Computational efficiency is enhanced by using a branch-and-bound search in which pruning rules aim to achieve a hydrophobic core and satisfactory hydrogen bonding patterns. We show that the pruning rules reduce computational time by 103- to 105-fold, and that this strategy is computationally practical at least for molecules up to about 100 amino acids long.

A dominant feature of folding of cytochrome c is the presence of nonnative His-heme kinetic traps, which either pre-exist in the unfolded protein or are formed soon after initiation of folding. The kinetically trapped species can constitute the majority of folding species, and their breakdown limits the rate of folding to the native state. A temperature jump (T-jump) relaxation technique has been used to compare the unfolding/folding kinetics of yeast iso-2 cytochrome c and a genetically engineered double mutant that lacks His-heme kinetic traps, H33N,H39K iso-2. The results show that the thermodynamic properties of the transition states are very similar. A single relaxation time τobs is observed for both proteins by absorbance changes at 287 nm, a measure of solvent exclusion from aromatic residues. At temperatures near Tm, the midpoint of the thermal unfolding transitions, τobs is four to eight times faster for H33N,H39K iso-2 (τobs ∼ 4–10 ms) than for iso-2 (τobs ∼ 20–30 ms). T-jumps show that there are no kinetically unresolved (τ < 1–3 μs T-jump dead time) “burst” phases for either protein. Using a two-state model, the folding (kf) and unfolding (ku) rate constants and the thermodynamic activation parameters ΔGf[Dagger], ΔGu[Dagger], ΔHf[Dagger], ΔHu[Dagger], ΔSf[Dagger], ΔSu[Dagger] are evaluated by fitting the data to a function describing the temperature dependence of the apparent rate constant kobs (= τobs−1) = kf + ku. The results show that there is a small activation enthalpy for folding, suggesting that the barrier to folding is largely entropic. In the “new view,” a purely entropic kinetic barrier to folding is consistent with a smooth funnel folding landscape.

We report an enigmatic peptide ligation reaction catalyzed by Glu-specific Staphylococcus aureus V8 protease that occurs in neat aqueous solution around neutral pH utilizing a totally unprotected peptide substrate containing free α-carboxyl and α-amino groups. V8 protease catalyzed a chain of ligation steps between pH 6 and 8 at 4 °C, producing a gamut of covalent oligomers (dimer through octamer or higher) of a native protein segment TAAAKFE (S39) derived from ribonuclease A (RNAse A). Size-exclusion chromatography suggested the absence of strong interaction between the reacting peptides. The circular dichroism spectra of monomer through pentamer showed length-dependent enhancement of secondary structure in the oligomers, suggesting that protease-catalyzed ligation of a monomer to an oligomer resulted in a product that was more structured than its precursor. The relative conformational stability of the oligomers was reflected in their ability to resist proteolysis, indicating that the oligomerization reaction was facilitated as a consequence of the “conformational trapping” of the product. The ligation reaction proceeded in two phases—slow formation and accumulation of the dimer followed by a fast phase of oligomerization, implying that the conformational trap encountered in the oligomerization reaction was a two-step process. The Gly substitution at any position of the TAAAKFE sequence was deleterious, suggesting that the first step of the conformational trap, namely the dimerization reaction, that proceeded very slowly even with the parent peptide, was quite sensitive to amino acid sequence. In contrast, the oligomerization reaction of an Ala analog, AAAAKFE, occurred in much the same way as S39, albeit with faster rate, suggesting that Ala substitution stabilized the overall conformational trapping process. The results suggest the viability of the product-directed “conformational trap” as a mechanism to achieve peptide ligation of totally unprotected peptide fragments in neat aqueous solution. Further, the study projects the presence of considerable innate synthetic potential in V8 protease, baring rich possibilities of protein engineering of this enzyme to generate a “V8 peptide ligase.”

The Escherichia coli RecA protein triggers both DNA repair and mutagenesis in a process known as the SOS response. The 81-residue E. coli protein DinI inhibits activity of RecA in vivo. The solution structure of DinI has been determined by multidimensional triple resonance NMR spectroscopy, using restraints derived from two sets of residual dipolar couplings, obtained in bicelle and phage media, supplemented with J couplings and a moderate number of NOE restraints. DinI has an α/β fold comprised of a three-stranded β-sheet and two α-helices. The β-sheet topology is unusual: the central strand is flanked by a parallel and an antiparallel strand and the sheet is remarkably flat. The structure of DinI shows that six negatively charged Glu and Asp residues on DinI's kinked C-terminal α-helix form an extended, negatively charged ridge. We propose that this ridge mimics the electrostatic character of the DNA phospodiester backbone, thereby enabling DinI to compete with single-stranded DNA for RecA binding. Biochemical data confirm that DinI is able to displace ssDNA from RecA.

The native form of inhibitory serpins (serine protease inhibitors) is not in the thermodynamically most stable state but in a metastable state, which is critical to inhibitory functions. To understand structural basis and functional roles of the native metastability of inhibitory serpins, we have been characterizing stabilizing mutations of human α1-antitrypsin, a prototype inhibitory serpin. One of the sites that has been shown to be critical in stability and inhibitory activity of α1-antitrypsin is Lys335. In the present study, detailed roles of this lysine were analyzed by assessing the effects of 13 different amino acid substitutions. Results suggest that size and architect of the side chains at the 335 site determine the metastability of α1-antitrypsin. Moreover, factors such as polarity and flexibility of the side chain at this site, in addition to the metastability, seem to be critical for the inhibitory activity. Substitutions of the lysine at equivalent positions in two other inhibitory serpins, human α1-antichymotrypsin and human antithrombin III, also increased stability and decreased inhibitory activity toward α-chymotrypsin and thrombin, respectively. These results and characteristics of lysine side chain, such as flexibility, polarity, and the energetic cost upon burial, suggest that this lysine is one of the structural designs in regulating metastability and function of inhibitory serpins in general.

Bovine β-lactoglobulin A assumes a dimeric native conformation at neutral pH, while the conformation at pH 2 is monomeric but still native. β-Lactoglobulin A has a free thiol at Cys121, which is buried between the β-barrel and the C-terminal major α-helix. This thiol group was specifically reacted with 5,5′-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) in the presence of 1.0 M Gdn-HCl at pH 7.5, producing a modified β-lactoglobulin (TNB-blg) containing a mixed disulfide bond with 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (TNB). The conformation and stability of TNB-blg were studied by circular dichroism (CD), tryptophan fluorescence, analytical ultracentrifugation, and one-dimensional 1H-NMR. The CD spectra of TNB-blg indicated disordering of the native secondary structure at pH 7.5, whereas a slight increase in the α-helical content was observed at pH 2.0. The tryptophan fluorescence of TNB-blg was significantly quenched compared with that of the intact protein, probably by the energy transfer to TNB. Sedimentation equilibrium analysis indicated that, at neutral pH, TNB-blg is monomeric while the intact protein is dimeric. In contrast, at pH 2.0, both the intact β-lactoglobulin and TNB-blg were monomeric. The unfolding transition of TNB-blg induced by Gdn-HCl was cooperative in both pH regions, although the degree of cooperativity was less than that of the intact protein. The 1H-NMR spectrum for TNB-blg at pH 3.0 was native-like, whereas the spectrum at pH 7.5 was similar to that of the unfolded proteins. These results suggest that modification of the buried thiol group destabilizes the rigid hydrophobic core and the dimer interface, producing a monomeric state that is native-like at pH 2.0 but is molten globule-like at pH 7.5. Upon reducing the mixed disulfide of TNB-blg with dithiothreitol, the intact β-lactoglobulin was regenerated. TNB-blg will become a useful model to analyze the conformation and stability of the intermediate of protein folding.

Pure rat brain tubulin is readily palmitoylated in vitro using [3H]palmitoyl CoA but no added enzymes. A maximum of approximately six palmitic acids are added per dimer in 2–3 h at 36–37 °C under native conditions. Both α and β tubulin are labeled, and 63–73% of the label was hydroxylamine-labile, presumed thioesters. Labeling increases with increasing pH and temperature, and with low concentrations of guanidine HCl or KCl (but not with urea) to a maximum of ∼13 palmitates/dimer. High SDS and guanidine HCl concentrations are inhibitory. At no time could all 20 cysteine residues of the dimer be palmitoylated. Polymerization to microtubules, or use of tubulin S, markedly decreases the accessibility of the palmitoylation sites. Palmitoylation increases the electrophoretic mobility of a portion of α tubulin toward the β band. Palmitoylated tubulin binds a colchicine analogue normally, but during three warm/cold polymerization/depolymerization cycles there is a progressive loss of palmitoylated tubulin, indicating decreased polymerization competence. We postulate that local electrostatic factors are major regulators of reactivity of tubulin cysteine residues toward palmitoyl CoA, and that the negative charges surrounding a number of the cysteines are sensitive to negative charges on palmitoyl CoA.

Molecular dynamics calculations provide a method by which the dynamic properties of molecules can be explored over timescales and at a level of detail that cannot be obtained experimentally from NMR or X-ray analyses. Recent work (Philippopoulos M, Mandel AM, Palmer AG III, Lim C, 1997, Proteins 28:481–493) has indicated that the accuracy of these simulations is high, as measured by the correspondence of parameters extracted from these calculations to those determined through experimental means. Here, we investigate the dynamic behavior of the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain of hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck) via 15N backbone relaxation NMR studies and a set of four independent 4 ns solvated molecular dynamics calculations. We also find that molecular dynamics simulations accurately reproduce fast motion dynamics as estimated from generalized order parameter (S2) analysis for regions of the protein that have experimentally well-defined coordinates (i.e., stable secondary structural elements). However, for regions where the coordinates are not well defined, as indicated by high local root-mean-square deviations among NMR-determined structural family members or high B-factors/low electron density in X-ray crystallography determined structures, the parameters calculated from a short to moderate length (less than 5–10 ns) molecular dynamics trajectory are dependent on the particular coordinates chosen as a starting point for the simulation.

X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) is caused by mutations in the Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk). The absence of functional Btk leads to failure of B-cell development that incapacitates antibody production in XLA patients leading to recurrent bacterial infections. Btk SH2 domain is essential for phospholipase C-γ phosphorylation, and mutations in this domain were shown to cause XLA. Recently, the B-cell linker protein (BLNK) was found to interact with the SH2 domain of Btk, and this association is required for the activation of phospholipase C-γ. However, the molecular basis for the interaction between the Btk SH2 domain and BLNK and the cause of XLA remain unclear. To understand the role of Btk in B-cell development, we have determined the stability and peptide binding affinity of the Btk SH2 domain. Our results indicate that both the structure and stability of Btk SH2 domain closely resemble with other SH2 domains, and it binds with phosphopeptides in the order pYEEI > pYDEP > pYMEM > pYLDL > pYIIP. We expressed the R288Q, R288W, L295P, R307G, R307T, Y334S, Y361C, L369F, and I370M mutants of the Btk SH2 domain identified from XLA patients and measured their binding affinity with the phosphopeptides. Our studies revealed that mutation of R288 and R307 located in the phosphotyrosine binding site resulted in a more than 200-fold decrease in the peptide binding compared to L295, Y334, Y361, L369, and I370 mutations in the pY + 3 hydrophobic binding pocket (∼3- to 17-folds). Furthermore, mutation of the Tyr residue at the βD5 position reverses the binding order of Btk SH2 domain to pYIIP > pYLDL > pYDEP > pYMEM > pYEEI. This altered binding behavior of mutant Btk SH2 domain likely leads to XLA.

The Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) receptor is a tyrosine kinase that mediates the biological effects of ligands such as EGF and transforming growth factor alpha. An understanding of the molecular basis of its action has been hindered by a lack of structural and mutational data on the receptor. We have constructed comparative models of the four extracellular domains of the EGF receptor that are based on the structure of the first three domains of the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) receptor. The first and third domains of the EGF receptor, L1 and L2, are right-handed beta helices. The second and fourth domains of the EGF receptor, S1 and S2, consist of the modules held together by disulfide bonds, which, except for the first module of the S1 domain, form rod-like structures. The arrangement of the L1 and S1 domains of the model are similar to that of the first two domains of the IGF-1 receptor, whereas that of the L2 and S2 domains appear to be significantly different. Using the EGF receptor model and limited information from the literature, we have proposed a number of regions that may be involved in the functioning of the receptor. In particular, the faces containing the large beta sheets in the L1 and L2 domains have been suggested to be involved with ligand binding of EGF to its receptor.

The SH3 domain, comprised of approximately 60 residues, is found within a wide variety of proteins, and is a mediator of protein–protein interactions. Due to the large number of SH3 domain sequences and structures in the databases, this domain provides one of the best available systems for the examination of sequence and structural conservation within a protein family. In this study, a large and diverse alignment of SH3 domain sequences was constructed, and the pattern of conservation within this alignment was compared to conserved structural features, as deduced from analysis of eighteen different SH3 domain structures. Seventeen SH3 domain structures solved in the presence of bound peptide were also examined to identify positions that are consistently most important in mediating the peptide-binding function of this domain. Although residues at the two most conserved positions in the alignment are directly involved in peptide binding, residues at most other conserved positions play structural roles, such as stabilizing turns or comprising the hydrophobic core. Surprisingly, several highly conserved side-chain to main-chain hydrogen bonds were observed in the functionally crucial RT-Src loop between residues with little direct involvement in peptide binding. These hydrogen bonds may be important for maintaining this region in the precise conformation necessary for specific peptide recognition. In addition, a previously unrecognized yet highly conserved β-bulge was identified in the second β-strand of the domain, which appears to provide a necessary kink in this strand, allowing it to hydrogen bond to both sheets comprising the fold.

The lipocalin superfamily of proteins functions in the binding and transport of a variety of important hydrophobic molecules. Tear lipocalin is a promiscuous lipid binding member of the family and serves as a paradigm to study the molecular determinants of ligand binding. Conserved regions in the lipocalins, such as the G strand and the F-G loop, may play an important role in ligand binding and delivery. We studied structural changes in the G strand of holo- and apo-tear lipocalin using spectroscopic methods including circular dichroism analysis and site-directed tryptophan fluorescence. Apo-tear lipocalin shows the same general structural characteristics as holo-tear lipocalin including alternating periodicity of a β-strand, orientation of amino acid residues 105, 103, 101, and 99 facing the cavity, and progressive depth in the cavity from residues 105 to 99. For amino acid residues facing the internal aspect of cavity, the presence of a ligand is associated with blue shifted spectra. The collisional rate constants indicate that these residues are not less exposed to solvent in holo-tear lipocalin than in apo-tear lipocalin. Rather the spectral blue shifts may be accounted for by a ligand induced rigidity in holo-TL.

Amino acid residues 94 and 95 are consistent with positions in the F–G loop and show greater exposure to solvent in the holo- than the apo-proteins. These findings are consistent with the general hypothesis that the F–G loop in the holo-proteins of the lipocalin family is available for receptor interactions and delivery of ligands to specific targets.

Site-directed tryptophan fluorescence was used in combination with a nitroxide spin labeled fatty acid analog to elucidate dynamic ligand interactions with specific amino acid residues. Collisional quenching constants of the nitroxide spin label provide evidence that at least three amino acids of the G strand residues interact with the ligand. Stern–Volmer plots are inconsistent with a ligand that is held in a static position in the calyx, but rather suggest that the ligand is in motion. The combination of site-directed tryptophan fluorescence with quenching by nitroxide labeled species has broad applicability in probing specific interactions in the solution structure of proteins and provides dynamic information that is not attainable by X-ray crystallography.

We describe a new classifier for protein secondary structure prediction that is formed by cascading together different types of classifiers using neural networks and linear discrimination. The new classifier achieves an accuracy of 76.7% (assessed by a rigorous full Jack-knife procedure) on a new nonredundant dataset of 496 nonhomologous sequences (obtained from G.J. Barton and J.A. Cuff). This database was especially designed to train and test protein secondary structure prediction methods, and it uses a more stringent definition of homologous sequence than in previous studies. We show that it is possible to design classifiers that can highly discriminate the three classes (H, E, C) with an accuracy of up to 78% for β-strands, using only a local window and resampling techniques. This indicates that the importance of long-range interactions for the prediction of β-strands has been probably previously overestimated.

A divalent metal ion, such as Mn2+, is required for the catalytic reaction and allosteric regulation of pig heart NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase. The enzyme is irreversibly inactivated and cleaved by Fe2+ in the presence of O2 and ascorbate at pH 7.0. Mn2+ prevents both inactivation and cleavage. Nucleotide ligands, such as NAD, NADPH, and ADP, neither prevent nor promote inactivation or cleavage of the enzyme by Fe2+. The NAD-specific isocitrate dehydrogenase is composed of three distinct subunits in the ratio 2α:1β:1γ. The results indicate that the oxidative inactivation and cleavage are specific and involve the 40 kDa α subunit of the enzyme. A pair of major peptides is generated during Fe2+ inactivation: 29.5 + 10.5 kDa, as determined by SDS-PAGE. Amino-terminal sequencing reveals that these peptides arise by cleavage of the Val262–His263 bond of the α subunit. No fragments are produced when enzyme is incubated with Fe2+ and ascorbate under denaturing conditions in the presence of 6 M urea, indicating that the native structure is required for the specific cleavage. These results suggest that His263 of the α subunit may be a ligand of the divalent metal ion needed for the reaction catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase. Isocitrate enhances the inactivation of enzyme caused by Fe2+ in the presence of oxygen, but prevents the cleavage, suggesting that inactivation occurs by a different mechanism when metal ion is bound to the enzyme in the presence of isocitrate: oxidation of cysteine may be responsible for the rapid inactivation in this case. Affinity cleavage caused by Fe2+ implicates α as the catalytic subunit of the multisubunit porcine NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase.

At a time of the emergence of drug-resistant bacterial strains, the development of antimicrobial compounds with novel mechanisms of action is of considerable interest. Perhaps the most promising among these is a family of antibacterial peptides originally isolated from insects. These were shown to act in a stereospecific manner on an as-yet unidentified target bacterial protein. One of these peptides, drosocin, is inactive in vivo due to the rapid decomposition in mammalian sera. However, another family member, pyrrhocoricin, is significantly more stable, has increased in vitro efficacy against Gram-negative bacterial strains, and if administered alone, as we show here, is devoid of in vitro or in vivo toxicity. At low doses, pyrrhocoricin protected mice against Escherichia coli infection, but at a higher dose augmented the infection of compromised animals. Analogs of pyrrhocoricin were, therefore, synthesized to further improve protease resistance and reduce toxicity. A linear derivative containing unnatural amino acids at both termini showed high potency and lack of toxicity in vivo and an expanded cyclic analog displayed broad activity spectrum in vitro. The bioactive conformation of native pyrrhocoricin was determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and similar to drosocin, reverse turns were identified as pharmacologically important elements at the termini, bridged by an extended peptide domain. Knowledge of the primary and secondary structural requirements for in vivo activity of these peptides allows the design of novel antibacterial drug leads.

We have used the homonuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) to characterize a model protein: carbonic anhydrase B. We have obtained NOE difference spectra for this protein, centering the on-resonance signals either at the methyl-proton or at the water-proton signals. The spin-diffusion spectra obtained as a function of protein concentration and temperature provide direct evidence of much greater protein–water interaction in the molten-globule state than in the native and denatured states. Furthermore, although the protein loses its gross tertiary structure in both the molten-globule and denatured states, it remains almost as compact in its molten-globule state as it is in the native state. The spin-diffusion spectra, obtained as a function of a variable delay time after the saturation pulse, allowed us to measure the relaxation times of several types of proton in the solution. These spectra contain enough information to distinguish between those water molecules solvating the protein and the free ones present as bulk water.

Helical coiled-coils and bundles are some of the most common structural motifs found in proteins. Design and synthesis of α-helical motifs may provide interesting scaffolds that can be useful as host structures to display functional sites, thus allowing the engineering of novel functional miniproteins. We have synthesized a 38-amino acid peptide, α2p8, encompassing the α-helical hairpin present in the structure of p8MTCP1, as an α-helical scaffold particularly promising for its stability and permissiveness of sequence mutations. The three-dimensional structure of this peptide has been solved using homonuclear two-dimensional NMR techniques at 600 MHz. After sequence specific assignment, a total of 285 distance and 29 dihedral restraints were collected. The solution structure of α2p8 is presented as a set of 30 DIANA structures, further refined by restrained molecular dynamics, using simulated annealing protocol with the AMBER force field. The RMSD values for the backbone and all heavy atoms are 0.65 ± 0.25 and 1.51 ± 0.21 Å, respectively. Excised from its protein context, the α-hairpin keeps its native structure: an α-helical coiled-coil, similar to that found in superhelical structures, with two helices spanning residues 4–16 and 25–36, and linked by a short loop. This motif is stabilized by two interhelical disulfide bridges and several hydrophobic interactions at the helix interface, leaving most of its solvent-exposed surface available for mutation. This α-helical hairpin, easily amenable to synthetic chemistry and biological expression system, may represent a stable and versatile scaffold to display new functional sites and peptide libraries.

The disulfide bond pattern of catrocollastatin-C was determined by N-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometry. The N-terminal disintegrin-like domain is a compact structure including eight disulfide bonds, seven of them in the same pattern as the disintegrin bitistatin. The protein has two extra cysteine residues (XIII and XVI) that form an additional disulfide bond that is characteristically found in the disintegrin-like domains of cellular metalloproteinases (ADAMs) and PIII snake venom Zn-metalloproteinases (SVMPs). The C-terminal cysteine-rich domain of catrocollastatin-C contains five disulfide bonds between nearest-neighbor cysteines and a long range disulfide bridge between CysV and CysX. These results provide structural evidence for a redefinition of the disintegrin-like and cysteine-rich domain boundaries. An evolutionary pathway for ADAMs, PIII, and PII SVMPs based on disulfide bond engineering is also proposed.