Commission 49 covers research on the solar wind, shocks and particle acceleration, both transient and steady-state, e.g., corotating, structures within the heliosphere, and the termination shock and boundary of the heliosphere. During the last three years there was considerable progress made in studies of solar energetic particles, compositional and other signatures in the heliosphere, solar wind pickup ions, the termination shock, which was finally crossed by a spacecraft, and the boundary between the heliosphere and interstellar medium, and in solar wind modeling and space weather. These topics have been summarized here in five articles, each with extensive references that will guide the reader who wants further details. Observations from the following spacecraft have extensively used during this period: Ulysses, Cassini, Voyager 1 and 2, MESSENGER, ACE, Genesis, SOHO, Wind, and RHESSI.

The satellite system of M31 is the next closest satellite system to our own, and is well within reach of current generations of ground-based instrumentation. We have conducted a survey of this system with the Isaac Newton Telescope Wide Field Camera, particularly focussing on the seven dwarf spheroidal companions, and derived homogeneous, fundamental information for them. This reveals the presence of severe tidal distortion and multiple structural components in some systems. In addition, a comparison of the M31 dwarf spheroidals to their Galactic counterparts shows that the M31 dwarf spheroidals have scale radii generally twice as large as the Galactic dwarfs, suggesting that the tidal field of M31 may be substantially weaker than that for the Galaxy. A Keck/DEIMOS study of the newly discovered satellite And IX suggests that this galaxy has an anomalously large metallicity for its luminosity, and shows it to be strongly dark matter dominated.

Future extremely large telescopes will be the engines of major progress in the fields of star and planet formation, brown dwarfs, and extrasolar planets. Their throughput will enable spectroscopic studies of the structure of brown dwarf atmospheres; reveal the composition and kinematics of protoplanetary disks; extend radial velocity searches for extrasolar planets to fainter stars and lower masses; and characterize the surfaces of the most distant Kuiper Belt objects. Their resolution will allow us to resolve and track the orbits of close binary young stars and brown dwarfs, establishing their dynamical masses and calibrating their evolutionary tracks; probe the inner region of young stellar object disks, resolving the jet collimation region in accreting systems and disk inner holes in more evolved ones; and move the horizon for stellar companion searches inward to 40 mas, enabling the direct detection of hot young planets orbiting 10 AU from young T Tauri stars. The high contrast imaging capability of future ELTs is uncertain, and depends on future developments in extreme adaptive optics. Wavefront control considerations suggest a fundamental atmospheric contrast limit of 10$^{-8}$ for companion searches to nearby solar-type stars, below which detections are unlikely to be possible. To reach this performance level, continuing investments will be needed in extreme adaptive optics work, in addition to careful attention to the specialized requirements of ultra-high contrast imaging in ELT design. Above the 10$^{-8}$ contrast limit, a 30m telescope has the potential to directly image about a dozen of the currently known radial velocity planets.

In order to evaluate and develop mission concepts for a search for Terrestrial Exoplanets, the European Space Agency has prepared a list of potential target systems. In this paper we present the criteria for selecting potential target stars suitable for the search for Earth like planets. We also establish the habitable zone for the stellar systems. Planets found within these zones would be potentially able to host complex life forms. The Darwin target star catalogue was created from the Hipparcos catalogue by examining the information on distance, spectral classification, multiplicity and stellar variability. Additional information on the targets stars including spectral type, metallicity, X-ray luminosity, rotation and Strömgren photometry from several other catalogues are included to determine the target star sample. Design constraints of the mission are added to derive a final target star catalogue of 262 target stars excluding and 447 target stars including M stars for the Darwin mission. We also discuss the completeness of sample for different classes of stars.

Most stars, including all massive stars, form in clusters. Here, I present (sub-)millimeter observations of young stellar clusters in two well kown massive star forming regions. First, I discuss relatively low mass cluster formation across the Rosette molecular cloud and the influence of the OB association, NGC 2244 (the Rosette nebula) on their properties. Second, I present SMA observations of the Trapezium cluster in Orion and the detection of emission from protoplanetary disks (proplyds) around 4 low mass stars. The implications for Solar System scale planet formation around low mass stars in high mass star forming environments are discussed.

HD34921 has been identified as the counterpart of the X-ray source 4U0515+38 (=1H0521+373). The InfraRed properties are reminiscent of the B[e] system CI Cam. Optical short-term variability suggests a compact companion. We discuss how this system fits in the overall framework of Be stars and X-ray binaries.

The observations of Israelian et al. (2004) show that, in an effective temperature range between 5600, 5850 K, the planet host stars present a significant lithium underabundance compared to the stars without planets. We have studied this phenomena in order to discriminate the different planetary formation scenarii.

I present an overview of theory and observations of FUV-photon and X-ray dominated regions (PDRs and XDRs), with a discussion of some recent results.

The discovery of the first damped Lyman alpha (DLA) system in the early 1970s followed by the recognition that DLAs arise in intervening galaxies opened up a new field of galaxy evolution research. These highest HI column density absorption-line systems trace the bulk of the observed neutral gas in the Universe, and therefore, have been used as powerful probes of galaxy formation and evolution back to the redshifts of the most distant quasars. The history and progress of DLA research over the past several decades is reviewed here. Larger datasets and deeper surveys, particularly over the last couple of years, have improved our knowledge of the neutral gas content and distribution in the Universe at all observable redshifts, including the present epoch. New results on the statistics of DLAs at $z<1.65$ from our HST-UV surveys are presented and discussed in the context of recent results at $z=0$ and at high redshift. We find that $\Omega_{DLA}(z>0)$ remains roughly constant to within the uncertainties; the $z=0$ value of the neutral gas mass density, $\Omega_{g}$, is a factor of $\approx 2$ less than $\Omega_{DLA}$. The DLA incidence, $n(z)$, undergoes rapid evolution between redshifts 5 and 2, but is consistent with the no-evolution curve in the current concordance cosmology for $z\lesssim 2$. We also show that if the local Schmidt law relating surface density of gas and star formation rate (SFR) is valid at the DLA redshifts, then the DLA SFR density is too low for them to provide a significant contribution to the cosmic star formation history (SFH) at $z\gtrsim 1$. This implies that the DLAs are unlikely to be the same population as the star forming galaxies (i.e. the Lyman break and sub-millimetre galaxies) that dominate the SFH of the high redshift Universe. We suggest that this discrepancy and the DLA “missing metals” problem could be the result of missing very high column density gas due to its very small absorption cross-section.

A review of the current knowledge of physical properties and chemical composition of meteoroids entering the Earth's atmosphere is presented. Meteoroid penetration ability, ablation coefficients, beginning heights, light curves, fragmentation, and spectra are considered. The inferred bulk densities, mechanical strengths, rotation, and atomic elemental abundances are discussed. Cometary meteoroids are effectively grain aggregates with low bulk density (100–1000 kg m$^{-3}$), high porosity and low cohesivity. A volatile matrix holding the grains together may be present. Presence of large amounts of organic material is not firmly established. Small chunks ($\sim $mm) of denser material are sometimes contained in cometary meteoroids. Chemically, cometary grains are similar to CI chondrites but there is a hint of enhancement of Na, Si, and Mg and depletion of Fe, Cr, and Mg. Larger chemical diversity is observed among small meteoroids on cometary orbits not belonging to meteoroid streams. The relatively frequent Na-free meteoroids are probably fragments of cometary irradiation crust. Asteroidal meteoroids exhibit much lower mechanical strengths than stony meteorites, clearly due to the presence of large scale cracks. Iron meteoroids dominate among asteroidal meteoroids smaller than 1 cm.

We discuss the evolution of the habitable zone around low mass and intermediate mass stars as they evolve off the main sequence. This work shows that this class of stars should be included in the search for life because if planets could be found in their habitable zones, they will allow to test different hypothesis concerning the conditions of life formation. For instance if these planets show traces for life, it is possible to empirically determine a lower limit to the timescale for the formation of life. This time scale is not well determined from the Earth's study, as life formation initially occurred during a period of heavy bombardment from comets and asteroids during the formation of the solar system. We will summarize (to the best of our knowledge) some of the recent results concerning the early signs of life on Earth. We will present some of our work in progress in which we evaluate the effects of stellar evolution on the habitable zone changes.

We explore the recently proposed idea that the Galactic dwarf spheroidal galaxies are significantly (by 2 orders of magnitude) more massive than the conventional mass estimates of ${\sim}10^7$ M$_\odot$. In the larger mass case, the observed distribution of stars in these galaxies should have been entirely shaped by internal processes (formation and dynamic relaxation of stars in the potential of the dark matter halo), and not by the Galactic tidal field. We carried out numerical n-body simulations aimed at testing this scenario. Observed properties of three Galactic dwarf spheroidal galaxies were found to be consistent with our model. From our analysis, these dwarfs appear to be massive enough to alleviate the “missing satellites” problem of cold dark matter cosmologies.

We review the current status of searches for high redshift galaxies and quasars, together with their derived luminosity function, star formation history and relative contribution to the UV ionizing background. These searches have been carried out in the optical and near-infrared with the HST for very deep pencil beam surveys and ground-based telescopes for deep large area surveys. The peak of galaxy and black hole formation activity occurs at $z\sim 2$-3, with a strong decrease in UV luminosity density in the redshift interval $z\sim 3$ to 6. This decrease seems to extend beyond $z\sim 6$ for luminous galaxies, as there are only a few $z\sim 7$-8 secure galaxy candidates. The star formation rate at $z\sim 6$ is dominated by 0.1 L$^{\star}$ galaxies. The $z \gtrsim 5$ samples for both types of sources are too small to constrain the faint end of their luminosity function or even its knee. Consequently, predictions of the number density of $z \gtrsim 7$ galaxies is highly uncertain; their search with JWST and ELTs should cover areas of at least $\sim$1 deg$^2$ and will require long campaigns (${\gtrsim} 1$ month). Faint quasars of small black hole mass should also be detected in these surveys. Searches for $z\sim10$ rare, bright quasars and higher $z$ transient sources, gamma-ray bursts and population III SNe, should be undertaken with dedicated facilities. The physical properties of high $z$ galaxies and the metal-enrichment of the intergalactic medium at early epochs will be determined by high-resolution spectroscopic observations with ELTs requiring substantial exposure times (${\sim} 100$ hr).

Although a direct link between the HED meteorites and the asteroid 4 Vesta is generally acknowledged, several issues continue to be actively examined that tie Vesta to early processes in the solar system. Vesta is no longer the only basaltic asteroid in the Main belt. In addition to the Vestoids of the Vesta family, the small asteroid Magnya is basaltic but appears to be unrelated to Vesta. Similarly, diversity now identified in the collection of basaltic meteorites requires more than one basaltic parent body, consistent with the abundance of differentiated parent bodies implied by iron meteorites. The timing of the formation of the Vestoids (and presumably the large crater at the south pole of Vesta) is unresolved. Peaks in Ar-Ar dates of eucrites suggest this impact event could be related to a possible late heavy bombardment at least 3.5 Gyr ago. On the other hand, the optically fresh appearance of both Vesta and the Vestoids requires either a relatively recent resurfacing event or that their surfaces do not weather in the same manner thought to occur on other asteroids such as the ordinary chondrite parent body. Diversity across the surface of Vesta has been observed with HST and there are hints of compositional variations (possibly involving minor olivine) in near-infrared spectra.

Thanks to the accurate determination of the baryon density of the Universe by the recent cosmic microwave background experiments, updated predictions of the standard model of Big Bang nucleosynthesis yield the initial abundances of the primordial light elements with an unprecedented precision (Bennet et al. 2003; Spergel et al. 2003; Coc et al. 2004; Cyburt 2004). In the case of $^7$Li, the CMB+SBBN value is significantly higher than the generally reported abundances for Pop II stars along the Spite plateau. Here, we report on the very recent results we obtained by revisiting a large sample of literature Li data in halo stars that we assembled following some strict criteria on the quality of the original analyses published from the early 90s onwards.

Recent years have seen accumulating evidence for infall and rotation around disk like structures toward young stars of spectral types of early B and possibly late O. Observations indicate that the disks or tori are massive in comparison with the mass of the central stars and geometrically thick. Both properties distinguish them from the disks around low mass stars, in particular T-Tauri type stars.

I review observational techniques used in studying disks around massive young stars and summarize properties of disks derived from observations. I will discuss implications of these findings for the formation of massive stars.

We determine star formation rates for a sample of 50 DLAs from properties of the absorbing gas alone. Assuming thermal balance, we determine the grain photoelectric heating rate of the neutral gas from the [C II] $158\,\mu$ m cooling rate per H atom, $\ell_{c}$, inferred from C II$^{*}$ 1335.7 and damped Ly$\alpha$ absorption lines. We deduce the star formation rate per unit area and the FUV luminosity per unit co-moving volume, ${\cal L}_{\nu}^{DLA}$. Comparison of ${\cal L}_{\nu}^{DLA}$ with the luminosity density of Lyman Break Galaxies, ${\cal L}_{\nu}^{LBG}$, shows that ${\cal L}_{\nu}^{DLA}>>{\cal L}_{\nu}^{LBG}$ for most models. These models are ruled out if our assumption that LBGs dominate the total FUV luminosity density of the Universe is correct. The only feasible models are those in which ${\cal L}_{\nu}^{DLA}\approx {\cal L}_{\nu}^{LBG}$. We conclude that DLAs in which $\ell_{c}>10^{-27.1}$ ergs s$^{-1}$H$^{-1}$ contain centrally located LBGs, while the gas in DLAs with $\ell_{c}<10^{-27.1}$ ergs s$^{-1}$H$^{-1}$ is heated by background radiation alone.

The low-frequency (LF) timing noise contaminates residuals of time-of-arrivals (TOAs) of pulsar signals on long time intervals and in some cases can be explained by external astronomical factors not intrinsically related to the pulsar itself. A number of millisecond pulsars located in globular clusters show the LF noise presence in their rotational phase. We discuss a possible origin of this noise as caused by random time variations in the Shapiro time delay caused by flybys of stars of the globular cluster passing near the pulsar line of sight. The Shapiro time delay is integrated over space of parameters characterizing statistical ensemble of stars in the globular cluster and its long-term indeterministic time variation is obtained. We use this result for numerical simulations of the autocovariance function of the LF timing noise and show it can be used for the measuring of the density profile distribution in the globular cluster.

We present recent results on the carbon chemistry in photodissociation regions. We show that carbon chains and rings (CCH, c-C$_3$H$_2$ and C$_4$H) are tightly spatially correlated with each other, and with the mid-infrared emission due to PAHs (7 and 15 $\mu$m), mapped by ISOCAM. Neither the spatial distribution, nor the abundances of these species can be fit by state-of-the-art PDR models, which calls for another production mechanism. We discuss model predictions for carbon clusters and simple hydrocarbons. We show how selected abundance ratios can be used as a diagnostic of the physical conditions. We stress the need for more theoretical and laboratory work on fundamental processes relevant for the interstellar medium, which should be taken into account in the astrochemical models, but whose rates are not known accurately enough.

The report of Commission 15 was prepared primarily by the chairpersons of its two working groups: the Minor Planet Working Group and the Comet Working Group. In particular, the Minor Planet section was created by A. Cellino with a little help from E. Tedesco and the Comet section by T. Yamamoto with the assistance of D. Bockelée-Morvan, W. Huebner, A. Bhardwaj, D. Biesecker, L. Jorda, H. Kawakita, H. U. Keller, H. Kimura, A. Kouchi, and D. Prialnik. E. Tedesco was responsible for the Introduction, final editing, and merging of the two reports.