Conservation is a complex process that is affected by culture, politics, economics and biology. Smith & Walpole (2005) are right to identify corruption as an important influence on conservation, and their goal, to stimulate debate and analysis of this problem, is meritorious. Here, I expand on three points to highlight some further complexities that arise from their work.

The Vulnerable Ili pika Ochotona iliensis (Lagomorpha: Ochotonidae) is a poorly known mammal species that inhabits a restricted geographic range in the Tian Shan Mountains, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. It was discovered in 1983, described in 1986, and subsequently investigated over the following decade. As no studies were conducted on this pika during the next 10 years, a comprehensive census was undertaken in the summers of 2002 and 2003, including all sites where it had previously been observed. Evidence of the Ili pika was found at only 6 of 14 sites censused, and was extinct in two of six regions, including the type and paratype localities (Jilimalale Mountain). Ili pika populations appear to have declined in three of six regions, and in only one region did the population appear to be comparable to a decade earlier. Like all rock-dwelling pikas, the Ili pika has a low population density and rate of reproduction. Additionally, populations on its preferred habitat of cliff faces are highly fragmented. Increased temperatures, possibly due to global warming, and increased grazing pressure may have interacted with the normal population dynamics of the Ili pika to contribute to its recent dramatic decline. We recommend that the Ili pika's Red List status be changed from Vulnerable to Endangered.

In the title of his paper Rees (2005) asked a perfectly valid question with regard to one specific element: the effectiveness of European legislation in enhancing the impact of zoo research in conservation. However, the question was not fully addressed, and the answer may be difficult to determine, due in part to the increasing importance placed on research by zoos independently, and in many cases ahead of, legislation. He discusses at some length the way in which the proportion of zoo based research has shifted in recent years to accommodate and address many of the more technically challenging issues of nutrition, reproduction and population dynamics but without losing sight of the valuable behavioural elements of research on captive animals. Rees manages during the course of his argument to answer many of his own questions, with some clear examples of where and how the practical link can be made between many zoo activities, not just research, and the ultimate delivery of conservation benefits to species. It is worth noting, however, that in many cases the truly measurable and sustainable effect of conservation action on populations, species and habitats requires a timescale that spans generations and therefore may not yet be apparent.

The Mexican prairie dog Cynomys mexicanus is an endemic burrowing rodent with a restricted distribution. Up to 1996 the species experienced a loss of c. 60% of its historical range, and in the last few years a further loss of habitat has occurred, with the current range now covering only 36% of the historical range. In this study we examined the population dynamics of the Mexican prairie dog to determine the relative effects of habitat loss, isolation of remaining colonies, and decreasing habitat quality. We used data on prairie dog numbers in all colonies and demographic data for two colonies to carry out a stochastic population viability analysis. We found differing vital rates, which are presumed to result from differing habitat quality, at two colonies. As small variations of vital rates in the model strongly influenced the extinction risk for small populations, we conclude that habitat quality is important for the small populations. In the model the Los Angeles complex of colonies experienced a low risk of local extinction whereas at the Manantial complex local extinctions were frequent. Scenarios with changes in population sizes had the largest effect on extinction risk. Differing migration scenarios had little impact on extinction risk.

The widespread geographical distributions of mammalian carnivores such as the Carnivora and the Dasyuridae have often been erroneously equated with abundance. Their low densities and high demands on habitat area can render mammalian carnivores especially vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and destruction. The fossa Cryptoprocta ferox (Viverridae) is a mammalian carnivore threatened by the rapid loss of Madagascar's forests, to which it is endemic. A 3-year mark-recapture study, comprising four censuses, generated an estimate of fossa population density at 0.18 adults km−2, or 0.26 individuals km−2. This was supported by a similar estimate from home range data. The fossa is thought to be unusually common in the study area, yet the estimated density was lower than that predicted for a typical tropical carnivorous mammal of the body mass of a fossa. Ecologists are frequently under pressure to provide estimates of local and global population numbers of their study species; we discuss the numerous factors that limit our ability to do this on the basis of a single population estimate. Nonetheless, our findings are sufficient to suggest that none of Madagascar's 46 protected areas supports a viable population of fossas, indicating a demand for corridors and enlarged reserves to ensure this species' long-term survival. Loss of the top predator can have a knock-on effect on an ecosystem. The findings indicate that, to maintain intact tropical forest ecosystems, it may be essential to consider the requirements of their often little-known mammalian carnivores. These requirements could be far greater than previously assumed.

Corruption is a complex phenomenon with various confounding effects and, in their separate replies, both Ferraro (2005) and Katzner (2005) note that in some cases corruption may have short- and long-term benefits for conservation by limiting extractive and destructive development activities. We agree, and we also acknowledge that better governance does not necessarily lead to better conservation; a cursory look at Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots (Conservation Interational, 2005) shows that these threatened regions occur in countries with both high and low governance levels.

Wehnelt & Wilkinson (2005) suggest that I am confused about the aim of the Zoos Directive, stating that it is ‘… to further the conservation role of zoos rather than increasing research activities.’ On the contrary, they have confused the aim with the means of compliance. Participating in research is but one means by which a zoo may demonstrate a conservation role. I have not suggested that research activity should be increased, or that poorly resourced zoos should develop research programmes, or indeed that research is a compulsory activity. I have merely suggested that much of the research undertaken in zoos is not directly relevant to conservation and, as such, does not fulfil the requirements of the Directive. Wehnelt & Wilkinson have produced no evidence to the contrary.

The goal of this study was to quantify marine turtle nesting activity by species, identify threats to their populations, and provide recommendations for their conservation on the south-east coast of Nicaragua. One survey was conducted in each of 1998 and 1999, and 10 surveys in 2000. The majority of nesting emergences were by leatherback Dermochelys coriacea and hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata turtles, with some nesting also by green turtles Chelonia mydas. In 2000, egg poaching was highest for green turtle (83%) and hawksbill (75%) clutches. A total of 87 dead stranded turtles were encountered, of which at least 63.2% were green, 10.3% hawksbill, and 6.9% loggerhead turtles. The principal threats to marine turtle populations on the south-east coast of Nicaragua were the killing of nesting females, egg poaching, and bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries.

The Ethiopian bush crow Zavattariornis stresemanni is one of the most remarkable ornithological discoveries of the 20th century. It is restricted to an area of c. 5,000 km2 in southern Ethiopia, and a large part of its range is protected inside Yabello Wildlife Sanctuary. We report on the results of roadside counts carried out in 1989, 1995 and 2003 showing that the population of the species has decreased by 80% during this time. By comparing two Landsat satellite images from 1986 and 2002, we highlight land cover trends within the range of the species. These include a general increase in bush density, probably related to increasing grazing pressure by domestic animals, fire suppression (only in the Sanctuary) and the disappearance of wild herbivores. Land cover trends differed between the Sanctuary and the area outside, where open areas expanded, apparently indicating an increase in agricultural exploitation. Satellite images also showed that, within its range, the bush crow selects areas having relatively open terrain. Our data suggest that the population decrease within the Sanctuary could be due to the encroachment of open savannah by dense bush and that, therefore, the Sanctuary has failed to protect the bush crow. More research is urgently needed to evaluate its conservation status outside the Sanctuary and the impact of human activities on the species.

Headstarting is a management technique employed to enhance recruitment of turtles into diminished or extirpated marine turtle populations. Although there have been numerous projects worldwide, there has been a paucity of detailed investigations into its efficacy. Between 1980 and 2001, 16,422 captive-raised hatchlings and 14,347 yearling green marine turtles Chelonia mydas were released from the Cayman Turtle Farm. Approximately 80% of all turtles released were subject to some form of tagging, including living tags. A total of 392 tagged animals have been recaptured at intervals of up to 19 years. Of this total, 160 individuals were captured in the Cayman Islands and 232 were recorded from other locations within the wider Caribbean and southeastern USA. There was significant variation in the release-recapture intervals at the three countries with most returns (Cayman, Cuba and Nicaragua). A positive relationship exists between time at large and size at recapture and data suggest growth rates comparable to those of wild green turtles in the region. There have been at least six living tag returns, four involving turtles released as yearlings and two involving turtles released as hatchlings. This demonstrates an age at maturity that may be as short as 15–19 years, depending on stage of release. Results show that some headstarted turtles are moving around the Caribbean, surviving for long periods of time, contributing to the local breeding population, and are possibly displaying shifts in habitat utilization with age similar to those recorded by wild individuals.

Data on habitat requirements of the threatened Eurasian bittern Botaurus stellaris are largely qualitative and limited to countries holding small populations. We assessed the habitat spectrum exploited by male bitterns during the breeding season, based on the analysis of 40 booming sites and 33 non-booming sites in 2,500 ha of heterogeneous reed-beds in the Camargue, France. Environmental variables contributing to booming site selection were, in decreasing order of importance, determined by their contribution to multivariate statistical models: water level in April, proportion of open water, density of dry and green reeds, percentage cover of non-reed species, salinity and turbidity of surface water, and reed height and diameter. Overall, booming sites were characterized by a homogeneous cover of relatively sparse green and dry reeds growing with other plant species in shallow (10–15 cm), clear water. Because these findings are contrary to the traditional perception of bittern habitat in Europe, a reassessment of the species' ecological requirements throughout its distributional range is warranted. In the Camargue the main factors involved in habitat selection (water level and dry reed density) are directly associated with site management, and bitterns respond rapidly to slight environmental changes.

Across its range in Latin America the jaguar Panthera onca is threatened by habitat loss and through conflict with people. In the Pantanal of Brazil, where large areas of land are devoted to cattle ranching, jaguars often attack livestock and are persecuted by ranchers. However, the extent to which livestock predation and/or other socio-economic factors affect ranchers' tolerance of jaguars is unclear. This study examined ranchers' attitudes towards jaguars and conservation in the northern Pantanal in order to identify ways of resolving jaguar-rancher conflict. The results suggest that most respondents supported the conservation of the Pantanal but that attitudes towards jaguars were mixed and difficult to predict on the basis of socio-economic factors. Attitudes towards jaguars were more closely related to respondents' age and relative wealth than to jaguar-related benefits through tourism or costs through cattle predation. Whilst efforts to reduce cattle losses are needed, it may be equally as important for conservation initiatives to focus on the inherent appreciation of the natural value of the Pantanal within this ranching community.

The curio trade in marine fishes has not previously been quantitatively analysed. As a contribution towards understanding the scale and conservation impact of such trade we summarize import and export data from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service for 1997–2001. At least 32 fish species were involved in the USA's international trade in curios, of which 24 were included on the 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, with categorizations ranging from Endangered to Data Deficient. The USA apparently imported an annual total of approximately one million fish and 360 tonnes of fish parts, worth more than USD 1.7 million, although total volume declined over the 5 years of data. Fish curios imported to the USA reportedly came primarily from Taiwan and the Philippines, with 95% of curios obtained from wild populations. The three marine fish groups most traded for curios were sharks, seahorses and porcupinefishes. The value per individual fish fluctuated across years, with a considerable increase in the value of dried seahorses from 1997 to 2001. The trade probably adds to conservation concerns for at least some species.

A census of ungulates was carried out in May 2002 in the Haut Niger National Park, Republic of Guinea. The study site was subdivided into three census blocks in which a total 111 transects (total length = 838.24 km) were censused once by one observer. Densities were estimated using DISTANCE analysis. We observed a total of 10 species of ungulates (nine Bovidae and one Suidae). Maxwell's duiker Cephalophus maxwelli had the highest density (3.69 individuals km−2) followed by the red-flanked duiker Cephalophus rufilatus (2.61 individuals km−2), whereas the buffalo Syncerus caffer had the lowest density (0.34 individuals km−2). Compared to a census in 1997, the abundance of red-flanked and Maxwell's duikers significantly decreased (by c. 50%) whereas that of other species remained stable or increased. This variation may possibly be explained by a change in the hunting pattern in the area, which shifted from large-scale hunting by large groups of hunters from outside the area before the Park's creation, to small-scale poaching by local hunters. The Park includes a diversity of ungulate species and harbours populations of ungulates that are important at both national and regional levels. We recommend therefore that the Park should be considered a key area for the conservation of ungulates in West Africa.

The Guianas contain one of the largest single remaining tracts of undisturbed tropical rainforest in the world, but this forest and its fauna are facing increased threats. In the north of French Guiana both anthropogenic pressures and conflicts between settlements related to the use of natural resources are growing. Based on surveys in 17 forest sites we show that hunting pressure was the main factor determining current primate species richness, masking the effects of logging or forest type. Three of the larger species, the red howler monkey Alouatta seniculus, black spider monkey Ateles paniscus and tufted capuchin Cebus apella, were less abundant in hunted areas. In the areas around four settlements the harvested biomass of primates was low compared to other game species, but the harvests were close to or beyond the maximal sustainable thresholds for the red howler monkey and tufted capuchin. In French Guiana primates are either fully protected by law (the spider monkey and white-faced saki Pithecia pithecia), or their hunting is restricted to subsistence use (howler monkey, tufted capuchin and wedge-capped capuchin Cebus olivaceus). Most hunted meat is, however, destined for sale. Current conservation policy in French Guiana is limited to legal protection for some species and areas, and laws are poorly enforced. Although large areas of forest and its wildlife are protected simply by their remoteness, there is an increasingly urgent need for the legal protection of all primate species, and the establishment of large protected areas and efficient forest management schemes to minimize the impacts of logging and hunting.

Attitudes towards wild animals are reflected through history in various categorizations of species. For example, changes in the useful-harmful dichotomy of species have affected policy decisions during the long history of organized pest persecution as well as during the much more recent rise of nature conservation. The first hunting legislation in Finland dates back more than 650 years, to times when the country belonged to the Kingdom of Sweden. From those times to the early 20th century various acts of law exhibited a marked variation in placing species into useful and harmful categories. The dichotomy seems to be based upon fundamental ecological interactions between humans and other species. We show that the varying interest in pest persecution as well as important conservation milestones have been associated with contemporary human-animal relations such as the attitudes of decision makers and laymen towards wild animals, and the public awareness of species conservation issues.

Welfare implications of reintroduction are primarily unknown, although reportedly negative. Few studies have described physiological changes in captive-bred animals post-release and consequently the impact of reintroduction on captive-bred animals is not well understood. Such information is crucial to understanding whether reintroduction constitutes ethical practice. For these reasons two physiological indices associated with animal health, plasma vitamin E concentration (PVEC) or α-Tocopherol, and general condition scores, were monitored in reintroduced captive-bred yellow-footed rock wallabies Petrogale xanthopus celeris and P. x. xanthopus pre- and post-release. PVEC was chosen because deficiencies are common in captive animals compared to their wild counterparts, and have been linked to stress, myopathy, neuronal degeneration, low reproduction, anaemia and death. Changes in physical condition, within this study indicated principally by mass variation, coat condition, and reproductive status, but also parasite load, visible stress, lethargy and diarrhoea, have also not been reported for captive-bred animals reintroduced to the wild. Captive-bred yellow-footed rock wallabies reintroduced to areas of their former range in Queensland and South Australia showed a rapid and sustained increase in PVEC and physical condition, with post-release values significantly higher than pre-release captive levels. Post-release values for both parameters did not significantly differ from that of wild counterparts. Hence I conclude that there was no welfare implications related to the observed parameters in these reintroductions, rather the opposite.

Cabot's tragopan Tragopan caboti, a pheasant that inhabits subtropical montane forests in south-east China, is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Nesting in trees, it routinely makes use of natural platforms and the old nests of other species, both of which may sometimes be in short supply. This study was designed to test how much use would be made of artificial nest platforms, and to identify factors influencing their occupation. Basketry platforms made of bamboo were erected in parts of Wuyanling National Nature Reserve, Zhejiang Province, China. The tragopans used 16 platforms (8%) in 2002 and 12 (5%) in the following year. A census of the population in spring suggested that a high proportion of the females (41% in 2002, 36% in 2003) in the study area made use of the platforms. There were significant preferences for platforms in mixed conifer/broadleaf forest, as opposed to pure stands, as well as for sites on the upper part of hill slopes. Principal component scores were used to represent variation in 11 variables measured at each platform site. Binary logistic regressions employing these scores as predictors for each year separately did not reveal a consistent model for distinguishing used from unused platforms, although short distances to the forest edge were associated with use in both years. These nest platforms are cheap and easy to erect, and may have the potential to halt or reverse a perceived downward population trend for this species across the whole of its fragmented range. Further trials are therefore advocated.

Monitoring rare species of wild ungulates is critical for their conservation management. The Italian roe deer Capreolus capreolus italicus was recently confirmed to be a subspecies in Mediterranean habitats of central and southern Italy. We have monitored this subspecies at Castelporziano, near Rome, since 1988, and detected an abrupt population decline in 2001. We compared distance sampling surveys undertaken before and after the population crash to determine the ability of this method to detect variations in animal density and to investigate which factors may influence the precision of the estimates. We used radio tagged roe deer to evaluate the accuracy of our surveys, comparing distance sampling and mark-resight estimates at the same site, and studying the behavioural reaction of the animals to the presence of an observer. We found that before the crash distance sampling surveys attained a good precision but that the survey conditions influenced both precision and accuracy. Post-crash surveys were less precise, but the difference in density, before and after the crash was highly significant, indicating the potential of the method to quickly detect density variations and so to allow wildlife managers to react without delay to a crisis. The direct test of distance sampling assumptions showed that estimates were almost unbiased. We conclude that the methodology was successful for monitoring this population and that it may be used in other situations where ungulates are rare and efficient monitoring must be attained with restricted budgets.

In Finland, hunting bounties for pest animals were first introduced in the 1647 hunting law. Avian pests were included in bounty schemes a century later when a price was put on more than 20 species. The list of bounty species varied widely during the next 200 years. We examined the development of bounty schemes in Finnish wildlife management during 1647–1975 with respect to the prevailing attitudes to nature and hunting practices. We surveyed Finnish hunting legislation from the 1300s to the present, and collected hunting bounty data from hunting associations' archives and from statistics published in hunting magazines during the 19th and 20th centuries. Local municipalities and the government, and also hunters' and fishermen's organizations, paid bounties for pest species. Bounties were considered justified for direct and indirect economic, religious and ethical reasons. Organized persecution of pests was considered a necessary component of game management. The ‘golden age’ of bounty schemes from 1898 to the 1920s contributed to local extinctions of both mammalian and avian species. The cessation of law-based bounty schemes in 1975 was preceded by a period of strong environmental thinking, and bounty schemes were widely considered costly, outdated and unethical.