1. A preliminary report was not filed for this season and the results were instead incorporated into the various chapters making up the final report: Goodchild, R. G., Pedley, J. G. and White, D., Supplements to Libya Antiqua IV: Apollonia, the Port of Cyrene. Excavations by the University of Michigan 1965-1967 (Tripoli n.d.)Google Scholar, referred to henceforth as Apollonia. The monograph has become something of a rarity because most copies were ruined by a flood in the storage rooms of the Libyan Department of Antiquities in Tripoli.

2. For these see White, D., ‘The city defenses of Apollonia’, Apollonia: 134–38, figs 18-19Google Scholar. For further discussion see White, D., ‘Static versus reactive defense: an in-progress case study of the Apollonia and Cyrene fortifications’, La Cirenaica in Età Antica, Atti dei Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Macerata (1998): 579–612Google Scholar, referred to henceforward as White, Macerala.

3. Laronde, A., ‘Apollonia de Cyrénaïque et son Histoire, Neuf Ans de Recherches de la Mission Arch. Français en Libye’, Comptes rendues des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres 85 (1985): 100Google Scholar. Lloyd, J., ‘Urban archaeology in Cyrenaica’, Libyan Studies 20 (1989): 78Google Scholar.

4. White (supra n. 2) fig. 18, pl. 29, b.

5. For both see White (supra n. 2): 134, 153-55.

6. Beechey, F. W. and Beechey, H. W., Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa, from Tripoly Eastward, London (1828): 515Google Scholar.

7. Garlan, Y., ‘L'enceinte fortifiée d'Apollonia de Cyrénaïque’, Comptes rendues des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres 85 (1985); 363, fig. 2Google Scholar. Hallier, G., ‘Pierre de taille et mesures normalisées: les enceintes hellénistiques d'Apollonia de Cyrénaïque et de Massalia’, La fortification et sa place dans l'histoire du monde grec, Paris (1860): 254, 264Google Scholar. Laronde, A., Apollonia, porto di Cirene, Senigallia (1987) fig. 4Google Scholar.

8. Goodchild, R. G., ‘Roman milestones in Cyrenaica’, Papers of the British School at Rome 18 (1950): 88Google Scholar. White, D., ‘Cartographic surveys, town plans and aqueduct’, Apollonia: 31, 38, n. 27Google Scholar.

9. Goodchild, R. G., ‘Greco-Roman Cyrenaica’, Geology and Archaeology of Northern Cyrenaica (ed. Barr, F., Amsterdam 1868): 31. White (supra n. 8): 31, n. 7Google Scholar.

10. Similar layers of stone chips were found in association with the footings of some of the main features of Apollonia's defensive walls. See White (supra n. 2): 111, 116, 127.

11. Goodchild, R., ‘The Roman and Byzantine Limes in Cyrenaica’, Libyan Studies. Select Papers of the Late R. G. Goodchild (ed. Reynolds, J., London 1976Google Scholar = Journal of Roman Studies 4, 1953): 199Google Scholar.

12. White (supra n. 2): 106–09, 127–28, figs 5, 10, pls 15b–d, 26a. The Tower I alterations do not seem to have involved arches or vaults but did employ rubble with reused ashlars as part of the Byzantine reorganisation.

13. As prescribed by Philo, , Poliorketika, 1, 20Google Scholar. See trans, by Lawrence, A. W., Greek Aims in Fortifications, Oxford (1970): 77–79Google Scholar, n. 23, henceforward Lawrence, Aims. Winter, F. E., Greek Fortifications, Toronto (1971): 173–75Google Scholar. Gregory, S., Roman Military Architecture on the Eastern Frontier from AD 200 to AD 600 I, Amsterdam (1995): 153–54Google Scholar.

14. For which see Lawrence, , Aims: 410–18Google Scholar.

15. Buttrey, T. V., ‘The coins’, Apollonia: 342, no. 2 = Inv. 67-66Google Scholar, a silver-plated bronze struck in the late 4th or early 3rd century BC to imitate a 4th century stater of Leukas.

16. Garlan (supra n. 7): 372-74. Laronde (supra n. 3): 100-09. Hallier (supra n. 7): 252, n. 2. Lloyd (supra n. 3): 78. White, , Macerata: 581, n.4Google Scholar.

17. White (supra n. 2): 138, 153-55. White, , Macerata: 586–89Google Scholar.

18. Paraphrased by Lawrence, , Aims: 444, n. 8Google Scholar. Lawrence's chapter 7 discussion of country forts (159-97), not available when I wrote the chapter on the Apollonia walls for the Michigan report, remains the best general treatment of the subject. In their combination of early warning with blockading duties the frontier fortresses of Attica and the castella along the Flavian lines in Palestine remain central to this matter. See White (supra n. 2): 153-55. To the discussion of the field-works of Attica, add Lawrence, , Aims: 163 ffGoogle Scholar. Whether Ptolemais ever utilised a similar network, as was suggested by me, ibid., 153, n. 126, still remains moot.

19. For a discussion of the need for further investigation of Apollonia's pharos see White, , Macerata: 588–89Google Scholar.

20. Frigerio, C., ‘Ruus el Ashlab’, Quaderni di Archeologie della Libia 8 (1976): 421–29Google Scholar.

21. Stucchi, S., Monografie di Archeologia Libica: Architettura Cirenaica, Rome (1975): 359, 383, 663Google Scholar, hereafter Architettura Cirenaica.

22. Roques, D., ‘Phykous de Cyrénaïque, baie, cap, port et bourgade’, Studi Miscellanei 29: Scritti di Antichità in memoria di Sandro Stucchi (Università di Roma, ‘La Sapienza’ 1996): 269–76Google Scholar.

23. White (supra n. 2): 134.

24. White (supra n. 2): 134, ns. 5-7, pl. 29a.

25. White, D., ‘Cartographic surveys, town plan, and aqueduct’, Apollonia: 37–38, ns. 21–25, pl. 2dGoogle Scholar.

26. White, , Macerata: 605 ffGoogle Scholar. In compiling my own observations about Cyrene's walls I regrettably omitted mention of Laronde's comments embedded in his chapter 3 on the war of Thibron. See Laronde, A., Cyrene et la Libye Hellénistique. Libykai Historiai, Paris (1987): 71 ffGoogle Scholar.; the oversight was unintentional. We fortunately seem to agree on a number of essential points, not least of which is the need for further archaeological investigation of the remains before any definitive conclusions can be reached.

27. Herodotus IV, 200. Chamoux, F., Cyrène sous la monarchie des Battiades, Paris (1953): 153Google Scholar.

28. McNicoll, A., ‘Developments in techniques of siegecraft and fortification in the Greek world 400-100 B.C.’, La fortification et sa place dans l'histoire du monde grec, Paris (1986): 308Google Scholar.

29. Beechey and Beechey (supra n. 6): 538-9.

30. Hamilton, J., Wanderings in North Africa, London (1856): 49Google Scholar.

31. Diodorus Siculus, XVIII, 19.1-20.5. Laronde (supra n. 25): 41 ff.

32. A city left unfortified was a rarity in fourth century Greece. Lawrence, , Aims: 121Google Scholar.

33. Chamoux, F., ‘Le roi Magas’, Revue historique 216 (1955): 26 ffGoogle Scholar. Laronde (supra n. 25): 360-80.

34. Polyaenus, II, 28, 1-5.

35. White, , Macerata: 588–89Google Scholar.

36. Polybius, X, 44-47, makes it clear that the military application of heliographic signalling was in its infancy when Aeneas Tacitus wrote his treatise on strategy in the mid fourth century BC and was still undergoing modification during his own day in the second century BC.

37. Lawrence, , Aims: 208Google Scholar.

38. Lawrence, , Aims: 208, 240, 247-48, 453, 469, 471, 479, pls. 23, 23, 66Google Scholar.

39. Lawrence, , Aims: 208Google Scholar.

40. Gregory (supra n. 13): 107.

41. At Bulla Regia. See Picard, G. Ch., La civilization de l'Afrique romaine, Paris (1959): 218–19Google Scholar. Romanelli, P., ‘Le case semisotterranee di Bulla Regia’, Mélanges K. Mickalowski, Warsaw (1966): 641–47Google Scholar.

42. To attempt to summarise the key bibliographical references for this subject lies well beyond the scope and purpose of this paper, but see Stucchi, S., ‘L'architettura funeraria suburbana cirenaica in rapporto a quella della chora viciniore ed a quella ulteriore, con speciale riguardo all'età ellenistica’, Quaderni di archaeologia della Libia 12 (1987): 248–377Google Scholar.

43. Since Lawrence devotes an entire section to these two classic systems, the reader may refer to his Aims: 288-99, 453-54, 480-81. See also Winter (supra n. 13): 354-55 and indexed ref. p. 368.

44. It could also represent a constructional feature that has been simply overlooked, and only time will tell if other examples are to be reported elsewhere.

45. Goodchild, R. G., ‘Libyan forts in south-west Cyrenaica’, Antiquity 25 (1951): 140, n. 18Google Scholar. Goodchild (supra n. 11): 196. Stucchi, S., Architettura Cirenaica: 513 ffGoogle Scholar. White, D., The Art Bulletin 59, no. 4 (1977): 625–26Google Scholar.

46. White, D., ‘Cartographic surveys, town plan, and aqueduct’, Apollonia: 38–40Google Scholar.

47. White, D., ‘Before the Greeks came: a survey of the current archaeological evidence for the pre-Greek Libyans’, Libyan Studies 25 (1994): 39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 109–10Google Scholar. White (supra n. 46): 39. Fabbriconi, E., ‘Statuette in calcare da Wadi Bu Senab’, Libyan Studies 25 (1994): 229Google Scholar.

49. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 21Google Scholar. Wright, G. R. Ft., ‘Architectural details from the Asklepieion at Balagrae (Beida)’, Libyan Studies 23 (1992): 58Google Scholar.

50. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 111Google Scholar.

51. White (supra n. 46): 39.

52. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 109Google Scholar. Fabbricotti (supra n. 47): 229.

53. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 335–36Google Scholar. Luni, M. ‘Il Santuario rupestre Libyo delle ‘Immagini’ a Slonta (Cirenaica)’, Quaderni di archeologia della Libia 12 (1987): 415–58Google Scholar. Wanis, S., ‘A new relief from Cyrene with a Libyan scene’, Libyan Studies 23 (1992): 41Google Scholar. White (supra n. 46): 39.

54. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 56–57Google Scholar.

55. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 445, 593, 595–96Google Scholar.

56. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 477Google Scholar. Attiyah, B. and Stucchi, S., ‘Prima escursione nella uadi Senab e nel Got Girias’, Libya Antiqua 11–12 (1974): 251–96Google Scholar. Laronde, A., ‘La vie agricole’, Libyan Studies 20 (1989): 129Google Scholar. Fabbricotti (supra n.47): 229.

57. Gambini, V., ‘Nuove terme bizantine nel dintorni di Cirene’, Quaderni di archeologia della Libia 8 (1967): 453–58, figs 7-13Google Scholar.

58. The so-called ‘Terme di Paride’. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 478-80, figs 493–94Google Scholar. Late antique troglodytic dwellings that make use of earlier tombs add nothing to this discussion but see Stucchi, ibid: 501, 511, 533.

59. Supra n. 28.

60. For the basic references see Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 521–22, n. 1, fig. 545Google Scholar.

61. Goodchild (supra n. 44): 131-44, pi. ii, figs 2-5.

62. Ain Mara, whose protective outer ditch has chambers cut into its four outer faces: Goodchild (supra n. 11): 199. Gasr esh-Shahdan: ibid: 201-02. Gasr B, Beida: Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 522, 526Google Scholar. Stucchi, S., ‘Attività della Missione Archeologica Italiana a Cirene’, Quaderni di archeologia della Libia 8 (1976): 476–78, fig. 15Google Scholar.

63. McCredie, J., Hesperia Supplement XI: Military Camps in Attica, Princeton (1966): 17–87Google Scholar. Lawrence, , Aims: 172–84Google Scholar. Winter (supra n. 13): 42-46.

64. Apparently a feature present in many of the later fortified blockhouses along the Tripolitanian limes. See Goodchild, R. G., ‘The limes Tripolitanus II’, Journal of Roman Studies 40 (1950): 43, fig. 10Google Scholar. Also present in Cyrenaican examples such as Sidi el-Chadri and Gasr el-Mnechrat for which see R. G. Goodchild (supra n. 11): 205, fig. 65. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 518–19, figs 541–42Google Scholar.

65. As a military term, blockhouse seems to carry a more specific meaning in American than in English usage. For example, Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary (Chicago, 1941)Google Scholar defines it as ‘a strong building of one or more stories, so named because chiefly constructed of logs or beams of timber, having loopholes for musketry.’ Substitute ‘stone’ for ‘logs’ and ‘archery’ for ‘musketry’ and it describes, albeit anachronistically, more or less what we are dealing with here.

66. Goodchild, R. G., ‘Boreum of Cyrenaica’, Libyan Studies ( = Journal of Roman Studies 41, 1951) 189Google Scholar. See also Roques, D., ‘Procope de Césarée et la Cyrénaïque’, Libyan Studies 25 (1994): 261, 263Google Scholar.

67. Goodchild, R. G., ‘Arae Philaenorum and Automalax’, Libyan Studies ( = Papers of the British School at Rome 20, 1952): 163 ff., fig. 48Google Scholar.

68. Goodchild ibid: 158.

69. ‘The Roman and Byzantine forts of Cyrenaica are extremely small, most of them hardly 20 m square and few more than 50 m.’ Goodchild (supra n. 65): 190. The following relevant pre-Byzantine examples compare with Apollonia's East fort (17.3 × 22.4 m) as follows: Fort E. of Ras el-Aali, 35 × 32 m; Automalax, 16 × 16 m; Boreum (est.) 20 × 18 m; Roman watch lower, Gasr Ushish, 15×13 m; Zauiet Msus tower, 7.5 × 6 m; Gasr Esh-Shahden, phase 1, 14 × 14 m.

70. Goodchild (supra n.63): 40-43, figs 8, 9, 10.

71. Gregory (supra n. 39): 160 ff.

72. Goodchild (supra n.66): 166.

73. Goodchild (supra n. 11): 201-02, fig. 63.

74. See above n. 61.

75. The fort's knoll has no natural source of water. A protected interior cistern makes better sense for a fort than an external water source which could have been tampered with by sporadic raiders. Obviously the fort was not designed to withstand a formal siege. For an interior cistern elsewhere cf. the Tripolitanian fortified farm at Henscir Salamat. Goodchild, R. G., ‘Roman Sites on the Tarhuna Plateau of Tripolitania’, Libyan Studies ( = Papers of the British School at Rome 19, 1951): 89, fig. 36Google Scholar.

76. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 522Google Scholar.

77. Dates that again await verification through excavation.

78. Lawrence, Aims: 230, discusses the use of tiles on sloped or inclined tower roofsGoogle Scholar.

79. Goodchild (supra n. 11): 203, pl. 74. Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 528, fig. 552Google Scholar.

80. In the case of the Extramural Sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene where I have attempted to demonstrate the gradual development of block proportions from the Archaic through the Hellenistic/Roman period, the only wall that is approximately contemporary with the East Fort is the late 5th or 4th century retaining wall, T8, whose blocks measure c. 1.0 m long and range from 0.30 to 0.50 m in height; in other words, their height-to-length ratios vary from 1:2 to 1:3.33 and average 1:2.75. The sanctuary's later Hellenistic walls range more in the vicinity of 1:3.5/1:4 + · White, D., The Extramural Sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene, Libya, Final Reports 5: The Site's Architecture, its First Six Hundred Years of Development, Philadelphia (1993): 113–14, 179, 197, fig. 62Google Scholar.

81. Goodchild, R. G. and Ward-Perkins, J. B., ‘The “Limes Tripolitanus” in the light of recent discoveries’, Libyan Studies ( = Journal of Roman Studies 39, 1949): 24–27, fig. 5Google Scholar.

82. Goodchild (supra n. 63): fig. 10; 41-42.

83. Goodchild (supra n. 63): 42, fig. 10, pls. 15, 21.

84. Stucchi, , Architettura: 513 ff.Google Scholar, initiated the idea that the upland gsur on the Cyrenaican plateau are better interpreted as farmhouses than isolated military strongholds, an idea that I find not entirely convincing. See White, D., The Art Bulletin 59 (1977): 626Google Scholar. I am grateful, however, to one of my readers for drawing my attention to this issue. That the Apollonia fort can have nothing to do with farming is apparent to anyone who has walked over the broken, rocky ground to its south which remained sea-bed until the end of the Pleistocene period. Unlike the coastal plain directly south of Apollonia, which possesses a fairly deep soil cover and was used until recently for producing wheat, the coastal plain behind the fort back to the Pleistocene beach and nearly to the foot of the gebel can only sustain a ground cover of maquis and is useless for farming, although for all I know it may be covered with housing today since I have not visited the area for many years. Its early date, strategic location, and design all argue for a military identity.

85. Lawrence, , Aims: 187–97Google Scholar estimates that hundreds of individual towers were scattered over the Greek mainland.

86. Lawrence, , Aims: 194–97, 463, pls. 18, 19, 30Google Scholar.

87. I wish to thank the editor for allowing me to adopt this format while at the same time make sure that neither he nor my co-author be held accountable for any deficiencies that may occur as a result.

88. Clarke, S. and Engelbach, R., Ancient Egyptian Masonry, London (1930): 12–33Google Scholar; Lucas, A. and Harris, J., Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th ed., London (1962): 63–92Google Scholar; Goedicke, H., ‘Some remarks on stone quarrying in the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2060-1786 BC)’, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 3 (1964): 43–48Google Scholar; Forbes, R. J., Studies in Ancient Technology, 2nd ed., Leiden (1966), vol. 7: 167–76Google Scholar.

89. MacGillivray, A.et al., ‘An archaeological survey of the Roussolakkos area at Palaikastro’, Annual of the British School at Athens 79 (1984): 129–59 at pp. 144–49Google Scholar; Soles, J. S., ‘A bronze age quarry in Eastern Crete’, Journal of Field Archaeology 10 (1983): 33–46Google Scholar.

90. Syro-Palestine: Wright, G. R. H., Ancient Building in South Syria and Palestine, Leiden (1985)Google Scholar; Shiloh, Y. and Horowitz, A., ‘Ashlar Quarries of the Iron Age in the hill country of Israel’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 217 (1975): 37–48Google Scholar. Urartu: Tashan, M. T. and Sevin, V., ‘The relation between Urartian temple gates and monumental rock niches’, Belleten 39 (1975): 400–412Google Scholar; Sevin, V., ‘Van kalesi'nden bir kaya mezari ve Uartular'da ölö-yakma gelenegi. A rock-cut columbarium from Van Kale and the Urartian cremation rite’, Anadolu Arastirmalari 8 (1980): 151–64Google Scholar.

91. Martin, R., Manuel d'Architecture Grecque, Paris (1965): 163 ffGoogle Scholar; Dworakowska, A., Quarries in Ancient Greece, Wroclaw and Warsaw (1975)Google Scholar.

92. Srinivasan, K. C., Cave-Temples of the Pallavas, New Delhi (1964)Google Scholar: Huntington, S., The Art of Ancient India, New York-Tokyo (1985)Google Scholar: Berkson, C., The Caves of Aurangabad: early Buddhist Tantric Art in India, New York (1986)Google Scholar; The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, New Delhi (1991)Google Scholar.

93. Mauceri, L., Il Castello Eurialo nella Storia e nell'arte, Palermo (1956)Google Scholar: Winter, F. E., ‘The chronology of the Euryalos fortress at Syracuse’, American Journal of Archaeology 67 (1963): 363–87Google Scholar. Tréziny, H., ‘L'architettura militare greca in Occidente’, in: I Greci in Occidente, Venice (1996): 347–52, see esp. accompanying plsGoogle Scholar.

94. Rodley, L., Cave Monasteries of Byzantine Cappadocia, Cambridge (1985)Google Scholar; Bianchi Barriviera, L. ‘Le chiese in roccia di Lalibelà e di altri luoghi del Lasta’, Rassegna di studi etiopici 18–19 (1962): 1–119Google Scholar.

95. Pacho, J.-R., Relation d'un voyage dans la Marmarique, la Cyrénaïque, et les oasis d'Audjelah et de Maradèh, Paris, repr. Marseilles, Éditions Jean Laffitte (1827, repr. 1979)Google Scholar.

96. E.g. Beechey, F. W. and H. W., , Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa, from Tripoly Eastward, in 1821 and 1822, London (1828)Google Scholar; Smith, R. M. and Porcher, E. A., History of the Recent Discoveries at Cyrene, made during an Expedition to the Cyrenaica in 1860-61, under the Auspices of Her Majesty's Government, London (1864)Google Scholar; Rowe, A. and Healy, J. F., Cyrenaican Expeditions of the University of Manchester 1955, 1956, 1957, Manchester (1959)Google Scholar. Goodchild, R., ‘A hole in the heavens’, in: Reynolds, J. (ed.) Libyan Studies. Select Papers of the Late R. G. Goodchild, London (1976): 271 ff.Google Scholar; White, D., ‘Cyrene‘, Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East 2 (1997): 97–8Google Scholar.

97. Tomlinson, R. A., ‘False-facade tombs at Cyrene’, Annual of the British School at Athens 62 (1967): 241–56Google Scholar; Cassels, J., ’The Cemeteries of Cyrene’, Papers of the British School at Rome 23 (1955): 2–43Google Scholar; Stucchi, , Architettura Cirenaica: 149–92Google Scholar.

98. Herodotus IV, 159. Boardman, J., ‘Evidence for the dating of Greek settlements in Cyrenaica’, Annual of the British School at Athens 61 (1966): 149–56Google Scholar; Graham, A. J., ‘The colonial expansion of Greece’, in: Boardman, J. and Hammond, N. G. L. (eds), Cambridge Ancient History III.3 (2nd ed., Cambridge) (1982): 83-162 at pp. 136–7Google Scholar; White, D., The Extramural Sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone at Cyrene, Libya, Final Reports I: Background and Introduction to the Excavations, Philadelphia (1984): 23–27Google Scholar.