Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T11:59:46.968Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Distant Colonies and Explosive Collapse: The Two Stages of the Tiwanaku Diaspora in the Osmore Drainage

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Bruce D. Owen
Bruce D. Owen*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 94928
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The geographic expansion of Tiwanaku people and culture (cal A.D. 500–1150) in the south-central Andes can be viewed as a two-staged diaspora. This article defines and categorizes diasporas, suggests archaeological correlates and theoretical implications, and reconstructs the Tiwanaku diaspora. The first stage was a colonizing diaspora in the context of the functioning Tiwanaku state, limited to a few mid-elevation places such as the middle Osmore drainage near Moquegua and probably Cochabamba. The second stage was a much more extensive victim/refugee diaspora driven by the violent disintegration of the colonies around A.D. 1000, in conjunction with either the collapse of Tiwanaku or its radical reorientation by a militaristic elite. Second-stage diaspora populations that settled in sparsely populated areas such as the upper Osmore drainage or the Carumas–Calacoa region established dispersed, small, defensible villages. Those that settled among a larger or more established host population such as the Chiribaya in the coastal Osmore Valley integrated as a marked, lower-status minority. This explosive collapse suggests that Tiwanaku was composed of multiple groups whose differing interests could not be contained. Supporting evidence is drawn primarily from the Osmore drainage, especially the coastal segment.

Se puede ver la extensión geográfica de la gente y cultura Tiwanaku (500–1150 d.C.) en los Andes sur-centrales como una diáspora de dos etapas. Este artículo define y clasifica diásporas, sugiera correlativos arqueológicos y consecuencias teóricas, y reconstruye la diáspora Tiwanakota. La primera etapa fue una diáspora colonizadora, en el contexto del estado Tiwanaku en marcha. Esta fue limitada a unos sitios de altura intermedia, como la cuenca media del Osmore cerca a Moquegua, y probablemente Cochabamba. La segunda etapa fue una diáspora mucho más extensa, del tipo víctima/refugiado. Fue impulsada por la desintegración violenta de las colonias alrededor de 1000 d.C., contemporáneo con el colapso de Tiwanaku o su reorientación radical por un élite militar. Poblaciones de la segunda etapa que se asentaron en áreas poco pobladas, como la cuenca superior del Osmore o la región de Carumas-Calacoa, establecieron aldeas pequeñas, dispersas, y defendibles. Los que se asentaron entre una población mayor o mejor establecida, como los Chiribaya en el Osmore costero, integraron como una minoría marcada, de menor estatus. Este colapso explosivo sugiere que Tiwanaku era compuesto de grupos múltiples cuyos intereses diversos no podían ser contenidos. Datos en apoyo provienen principalmente de la cuenca Osmore, especialmente el Osmore costero.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 16 , Issue 1 , March 2005 , pp. 45 - 80
Copyright
Copyright © 2005 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abbot, Mark B., Binford, Michael W., Brenner, Mark, and Kelts, Kerry R. 1997 A 3500 14C Yr High-Resolution Record of Water-Level Changes in Lake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru. Quaternary Research 47:169–180.Google Scholar
Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 1996 Tiwanaku Settlement System: The Integration of Nested Hierarchies in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley. Latin American Antiquity 7:183–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 2003 Tiwanaku: A Pre-Inka, Segmentary State in the Andes. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 95—111. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Barth, Fredrik 1969 Introduction. In Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, edited by Fredrik Barth, pp. 9–38. Little, Brown and Co., Boston.Google Scholar
Bauer, Brian S., and Stanish, Charles 2001 Ritual and Pilgrimage in the Ancient Andes: The Islands of the Sun and the Moon. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 1989a Pre-Incaic Cultural Ecology of the Ilo Region. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish, and Phillip R. Scarr, pp. 183–205. British Archaeological Reports International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 1989b The Tumilaca Site. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish, and Phillip R. Scarr, pp. 287–302. British Archaeological Reports International Series 545(h). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 1993 An Archaeological Study of Social Structure and Ethnic Replacement in Residential Architecture of the Tumilaca Valley. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Mark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 42–54. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Augusto, Belan F. 1981 Estudio sobre Chiribaya. Arqueos Peru 2–3:23–30.Google Scholar
José, Berenguer R. 1978 La problematica Tiwanaku en Chile: Vision retrospectiva. Revista Chilena de Antropología 1:17–40. Universidad de Chile, Santiago.Google Scholar
José, Berenguer R. 2000 Tiwanaku, Lords of the Sacred Lake. Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, Santiago.Google Scholar
José, Berenguer R., Victoria, Castro R., and Osvaldo, Silva G. 1980 Reflexiones acerca de la presencia de Tiwanaku en el norte de Chile. Estudios Arqueológicos 5:81–93.Google Scholar
José, Berenguer R., and Percy, Dauelsberg H. 1989 El norte grande en la órbita de Tiwanaku. In Culturas de Chile: Prehistoria desde sus orígenes hasta los albores de la conquista, edited by Jorge Hidalgo L., Virgilio Schiappacasse F., Hans Niemeyer F., Carlos Aldunate del S., and Iván Solimano R., pp. 129–180. Sociedad Chilena de Arqueología, Editorial Andrés Bello, Santiago.Google Scholar
Bermann, Marc 1994 Lukurmata: Household Archaeology in Prehispanic Bolivia. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Bermann, Marc, Goldstein, Paul, Stanish, Charles, and Luis, Watanabe M. 1989 The Collapse of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Osmore Drainage. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish, and Phillip R. Scarr, pp. 269–285. British Archaeological Reports International Series 545(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Binford, Michael W., and Kolata, Alan L. 1996 The Natural and Human Setting. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. I: Agroecology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 23–56. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Binford, Michael W., Kolata, Alan L., Brenner, Mark, Janusek, John, Seddon, Matthew T., Abbott, Mark, and Curtis, Jason H. 1997 Climate Variation and the Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization. Quaternary Research 47:235–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blom, Deborali E., Hallgrímsson, Benedikt, Keng, Linda, Maria, C. Lozada, C., and Buikstra, Jane E. 1998 Tiwanaku “Colonization”: Bioarchaeological Implications for Migration in the Moquegua Valley, Peru. World Archaeology 30:238–261.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre 1977 Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouysse-Cassagne, Thérèse 1988 Lluvias y cenizas, dos pachacuti en la historia. Biblioteca Andina, HISBOL, La Paz.Google Scholar
Boytner, Ran 1992 Ilo-Tumilaca/Cabuza, Chiribaya, and Their Relationships with the Tiwanaku Culture as Can Be Seen in Textiles from the Coastal Osmore Valley, Southern Peru. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Archaeology Program, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Boytner, Ran 1998 Textiles from the Lower Osmore Valley, Southern Peru: A Cultural Interpretation. Andean Past 5:325–356.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1978 Toward the Development of the Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) State. In Advances in Andean Archaeology, edited by David Browman, pp. 327–349. Mouton, The Hague.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, David L. 1984 Tiwanaku: Development of Interzonal Trade and Economic Expansion in the Altiplano. In Social and Economic Organization in the Prehispanic Andes, Proceedings of the 44th International Congress of Americanists, Manchester, 1982, edited by David L. Browman, Richard L. Burger, and Mario A. Rivera, pp. 117–142. British Archaeological Reports International Series 194, Oxford.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1985 Cultural Primacy of Tiwanaku in the Development of Later Peruvian States. In La problematica Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, 45th Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Bogota, edited by Mario A. Rivera, Dialogo Andino 4:59–71. Departamento de Historia y Geografía, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile.Google Scholar
Bruhns, Karen 1994 Ancient South America. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Buikstra, Jane E. 1995 Tombs for the Living … or … for the Dead: The Osmore Ancestors. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom D. Dillehay, pp. 229–280. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Burmeister, Stefan 2000 Archaeology and Migration: Approaches to an Archaeological Proof of Migration. Current Anthropology 41:539–567.Google Scholar
Cassman, Vicki 1997 A Reconsideration of Prehistoric Ethnicity and Status in Northern Chile: The Textile Evidence. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Clifford, James 1994 Diasporas. Cultural Anthropology 9:302–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Robin 1997 Global Diasporas, an Introduction. University of Washington Press, Seattle.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Couture, Nicole C., and Sampeck, Kathryn 2003 Putuni: A History of Palace Architecture at Tiwanaku. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 226–263. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Covey, R. Alan 2000 Inka Administration of the Far South Coast of Peru. Latin American Antiquity 11:119–138.Google Scholar
Dauelsberg, Percy 1960a Algunos problemas sobre la cerémica de Arica. Museo Regional de Arica, Boletin 5:7–19.Google Scholar
Dauelsberg, Percy 1960b Innovaciones en la clasificación de la cerámica de Arica. Museo de Arica, Boletin 4:12–13.Google Scholar
Dauelsberg, Percy 1973a Carta respuesta a Luis Guillermo Lumbreras “Sobre la problematica arqueológica de Arica.” Chungará 1–2:32–37.Google Scholar
Dauelsberg, Percy 1973b La cerámica de Arica y su situatión cronológica. Chungará 1–2:17–24.Google Scholar
Dauelsberg, Percy 1985 Desarrollo regional en los valles costeros del norte de Chile. In La problematica Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, 45th Congreso International de Americanistas, Bogota, edited by Mario A. Rivera, Dialogo Andino 4:277–285. Departamento de Historia y Geografía, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile.Google Scholar
Disselhof, Hans D. 1967 Huari und Tiahuanaco. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 92:207–216.Google Scholar
Disselhof, Hans D. 1968 Oasenstädte und Zaubersteine im Land der Inka: Archäologische Forschungsreisen in Peru. Safari-Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
Escalante Moscoso, Javier F. 1993 Arquitectura Prehispánica en los Andes Bolivianos. Producciones CIMA, La Paz.Google Scholar
Espoueys, Oscar 1971 Tipificación de cucharas de madera de Arica. Actas del VI Congreso de Arqueología Chilena, Octubre-1971 Boletin de Prehistoria, número especial, 1972–1973:63–109. Santiago.Google Scholar
Feldman, Robert A. 1989 The Early Ceramic Periods of Moquegua. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish, and Phillip R. Scarr, pp. 207–217. British Archaeological Reports International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Focacci A., Guillermo 1981 Nuevos fechados para la epoca del Tiahuanaco en la arqueología del norte de Chile. Chungará 8:63–77.Google Scholar
Focacci, A., Guillermo, , and Erices, S. 1973 Excavaciones en tumulos de San Miguel de Azapa (Arica, Chile). In Actos del VI Congreso de Arqueolgía Chilena, Octubre-1971 Boletin de Prehistoria, número especial, 1972–1973. Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Ciencias Antropológicas y Arqueología, Sociedad Chilena de Arqueología, Santiago.Google Scholar
García, M., Manuel, E. 1988 Excavaciones de dos viviendas Chiribayas en el Yaral, valle de Moquegua. Unpublished B.A. thesis, Facultad de Ciencias Histórico-Arqueológias, Universidad Católica “Santa María,” Arequipa.Google Scholar
García, M., E., Manuel 1990 Excavatión arqueológica en el cementerio de Chen Chen, Moquegua. Una interactión de contextos funerarios: Tiwanaku/Wari. Unpublished Licenciado thesis, Facultad de Ciencias Histórico-Arqueológicas, Universidad Católica “Santa María,” Arequipa.Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford 1963 The Integrative Revolution. In Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity inAsia and Africa, edited by Clifford Geertz, pp. 105–157. Free Press, New York.Google Scholar
Geyh, Mavis A. 1967 Hannover Radiocarbon Measurements IV. Radiocarbon 9:198–217.Google Scholar
Ghersi, Humberto 1956 Informe sobre las excavaciones en Chiribaya. Revista del Museo National, Lima-Peru 25:89–119.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1985 Tiwanaku Ceramics of the Moquegua Valley, Peru. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1989a Omo, a Tiwanaku Provincial Center in Moquegua, Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1989b The Tiwanaku Occupation of Moquegua. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish, and Phillip R. Scarr, pp. 219–255. British Archaeological Reports International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1993a From Bandelier’s Cemeteries to a Blackware Horizon, One Step towards a Tiwanaku Ceramic Chronology. Paper presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, St. Louis.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1993b House, Community, and State in the Earliest Tiwanaku Colony: Domestic Patterns and State Integration at Omo M12, Moquegua. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Mark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 25–41. University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1993c Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 4:22–47.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1996 Tiwanaku Settlement Patterns of the Azapa Valley, Chile—New Data, and the Legacy of Percy Dauelsberg. In Prehistoria del norte de Chile y del desierto de Atacama, simposio homenaje a Percy Dauelsberg Hahmann, edited by Mario Rivera, Dialogo Andino 14–15:57–73. Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica, Chile.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 2000a Communities without Borders—The Vertical Archipelago, and Diaspora Communities in the Southern Andes. In The Archaeology of Communities: A New World Perspective, edited by Marcello A. Canuto and Jason Yaeger, pp. 182–209. Routledge Press, London.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 2000b Exotic Goods and Everyday Chiefs: Long-Distance Exchange and Indigenous Sociopolitical Development in the South-Central Andes. Latin American Antiquity 11:335–362.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S., and Owen, Bruce D. 2001 Tiwanaku en Moquegua: Las colonias altiplanicas. In Huari y Tiwanaku: Modelos vs. Evidencias, segunda parte, edited by Peter Kaulicke and William H. Isbell, pp. 139–168. Boletín de Arqueología No. 5. Pontifica Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Gordon, E. T., and Anderson, M. 1999 The African Diaspora: Toward an Ethnography of Diasporic Identification. Journal of American Folklore 112:282–296.Google Scholar
Higueras, Alvaro 1996 Prehispanic Settlement and Land Use in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian 1979 Economic and Social Stress and Material Culture Patterning. American Antiquity 44:446–454.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian 1982 Symbols in Action. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 1994 State and Local Power in a Prehispanic Andean Polity: Changing Patterns of Urban Residence in Tiwanaku and Lukurmata, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2002 Out of Many, One: Style and Social Boundaries in Tiwanaku. Latin American Antiquity 13:35–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2003a The Changing Face of Tiwanaku Residential Life: State and Local Identity in an Andean City. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 264–295. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2003b Vessels, Time, and Society: Toward a Ceramic Chronology in the Tiwanaku Heartland. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 30–91. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Jessup, David 1990a Desarrollos generales en el Intermedio Tardío en el valle de Ilo, Peru. Unpublished Informe Interno del Programa Contisuyu.Google Scholar
Jessup, David 1990b Rescate arqueológico en el Museo de sitio de San Gerónimo, Ilo. In Trabajos arqueologicos en Moquegua, Peru, Vol. 3, edited by Luis K. Watanabe, Michael E. Moseley, and Fernando Cabieses, pp. 151–165. Programa Contisuyo del Museo Peruano de Ciencias de la Salud and Southern Peru Copper Corporation, Lima.Google Scholar
Jessup, David 1991 General Trends in the Development of the Chiribaya Culture, South-Coastal Peru. Paper presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W., and Kolata, Alan L. 2003 Pre-Hispanic Rural History in the Katari Valley. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 129–171. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1983 The South Andes. In Ancient South Americans, edited by Jesse D. Jennings, pp. 240–285. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1993 The Tiwanaku, Portrait of an Andean Civilization. The Peoples of America. Blackwell, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 2000 Environmental Thresholds and the “Natural History” of an Andean Civilization. In Environmental Disaster and the Archaeology of Human Response, edited by Garth Bawden and Richard M. Reycraft, pp. 163–223. Anthropological Papers No. 7. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 2003 Tiwanaku Ceremonial Architecture and Urban Organization. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 175–201. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L., and Ortloff, Charles R. 1996 Agroecological Perspectives on the Decline of the Tiwanaku State. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland, Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 181–201. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Latcham, Ricardo E. 1938 Arqueología de la región Atacameña. Prensa de la Universidad de Chile, Santiago.Google Scholar
Lechtman, Heather 1977 Style in Technology: Some Early Thoughts. In Material Culture: Styles, Organization, and Dynamics of Technology, edited by Heather Lechtman and Robert S. Merrill, pp. 3–20. West Press, New York.Google Scholar
Linares, D., Lucy, R. 1989 Cronología y relaciones culturales pre-hispánicas del valle del Chili-Arequipa. Unpublished Licenciado thesis, Facultad de Ciencias Histórico Arqueológicas, Universidad Católica “Santa María,” Arequipa.Google Scholar
Lozada, C., María, C. 1998 The Señorío of Chiribaya: A Bio-Archaeological Study in the Osmore Drainage of Southern Perú. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Lozada, C., María, C., and Buikstra, Jane E. 2002 El Señorio de Chiribaya en la casta sur del Perú. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, Luis 1973 Sobre la problematica arqueológica de Arica. Chungará 1–2:25–27.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, Luis 1974 Los reinos post-Tiwanaku en el area altiplanica. Revista del Museo Nacional, Lima-Peru 15:56–85.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, Luis, Mujica, Elias, and Vera, Rodolfo 1982 Cerro Baúl: Un enclave Wari en territorio Tiwanaku. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina 1:4–5.Google Scholar
Magilligan, Francis J., and Goldstein, Paul S. 2001 El Nino Floods and Culture Change: A Late Holocene Flood History for the Rio Moquegua, Southern Peru. Geology 29:431–435.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAndrews, Timothy, Albarracin-Jordan, Juan, and Bermann, Marc 1997 Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia. Journal of Field Archaeology 24:67–83.Google Scholar
Miranda, Ana 1993 Excavaciones arqueológicas de recintos domésticos en Chiribaya Baja: Ilo-Moquegua. Unpublished Licenciado thesis, Facultad de Ciencias Historico-Arqueologicas, Universidad Católica “Santa María,” Arequipa.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael 1992 The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael 2001 The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. Rev. ed. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael, Feldman, Robert, Goldstein, Paul S., and Watanabe, Luis 1991 Colonies and Conquest: Tiwanaku and Wari in Moquegua. In Wari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric and Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. Isbell and G. McEwan, pp. 121–140. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Mujica, Elias 1985 Altiplano-Coast Relationships in the South-Central Andes: From Indirect to Direct Complementarity. In Andean Ecology and Civilization, edited by Shozo Masuda, Izumi Shimada, and Craig Morris, pp. 103–140. University of Tokyo, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Mujica, Elias, Rivera, Mario A., and Lynch, Thomas F. 1983 Proyecto de estudio sobre la complementariedad económica Tiwanaku en los valles occidentales del centrosur andino. Chungará 11:85–109.Google Scholar
Iván, Muñoz O. 1981 Dinamica de las estructuras habitacionales del extremo norte de Chile (Valle-Costa). Chungará 8:3–32.Google Scholar
Iván, Muñoz O. 1987 Enterramientos en tumulos en el valle de Azapa: Nuevas evidencias para definir la fase Alto Ramírez en el extremo norte de Chile. Chungará 19:93–127.Google Scholar
Murra, John 1975 El control vertical de un máximo de pisos ecológicos en la economía de las sociedades andinas (1972). In Formaciones económicasy políticas del Mundo Andino, edited by John Murra, pp. 59–115. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima.Google Scholar
Nash, Manning 1989 The Cauldron of Ethnicity in the Modern World. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Máximo, Neira A. 1990 Arequipa Prehispánica. In Historia general de Arequipa, by Máximo Neira Avendaño, Guillermo Galdos Rodriguez, Alejandro Malaga Medina, Eusebio Quiroz Paz Soldan, and Juan Guillermo Carpio Muñoz, pp. 5–184. Fundación M. J. Bustamante De La Fuente, Arequipa, Peru.Google Scholar
Nuñez, Lautaro 1965 Desarrollo cultural prehispánico del norte de Chile. Estudios Arqueológicos 1:37–115. Universidad de Chile, Antofagasta.Google Scholar
Nuñez, Lautaro 1973 Carta respuesta a Luis Guillermo Lumbreras “Sobre la problematica arqueológica de Arica.” Chungará 1–2:27–32.Google Scholar
Orser, Charles. E. 1998 The Archaeology of the African Diaspora. Annual Review of Anthropology 27:63–82.Google Scholar
Ortloff, Charles R., and Kolata, Alan L. 1993 Climate and Collapse: Agro-Ecological Perspectives on the Decline of the Tiwanaku State. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:195–221.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1991 Rescate Arqueológico en el sitio PCCT 128/San Gerónimo 2, Realizadb el 26–28 de Diciembre, 1991. Unpublished report submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Ilo and Moquegua offices. Manuscript on file, Museo Contisuyo, Moquegua, Peru.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1993a Early Ceramic Settlement in the Coastal Osmore Valley: Preliminary Report. Paper presented at the 1993 Annual Meeting of the Institute of Andean Studies, Berkeley, California.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1993b A Model of Multiethnicity: State Collapse, Competition, and Social Complexity from Tiwanaku to Chiribaya in the Osmore Valley, Perú. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1994 Were Wari and Tiwanaku in Conflict, Competition, or Complementary Coexistence? Survey Evidence from the Upper Osmore Drainage, Perú. Paper presented at the 59th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Anaheim.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1995 Warfare and Engineering, Ostentation and Social Status in the Late Intermediate Period Osmore Drainage. Paper presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1996 Inventario arqueológico del drenaje superior del Río Osmore, informe del campo e informe final. Submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Peru. Manuscript on file, Museo Contisuyo, Moquegua, Peru.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1997 Informe de excavaciones en los sectores mortuorios de Chen Chen, parte del Proyecto Rescate de Chen Chen, Temporada de 1995. Submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Peru. Manuscript on file, Museo Contisuyo, Moquegua, Peru.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1998 A Tiwanaku IV Temple at Cerro Baúl: Evidence and Implications. Paper presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Andean Studies, Berkeley, California.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1999a The Mythical Coastal Colonies of Tiwanaku and the Post-Collapse Diaspora. Manuscript on file, Museo Contisuyo, Moquegua, Peru.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 1999b Proyecto “Vecinos de Cerro Baúl” 1997, informe de campo e informe final. Submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Perú. Manuscript on file, Museo Contisuyo, Moquegua, Peru.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 2001 From Sequence to Social Organization: Tiwanaku Multicomponent Society in Moquegua, Perú. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 2002 Marine Carbon Reservoir Age Estimates for the Far South Coast of Peru. Radiocarbon 44:701–708.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D. 2005 Ensayo a la prehistoria de Carumas-Calacoa, Horizonte Medio al imperio Inka. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce D., and Goldstein, Paul S. 2001 Tiwanaku en Moquegua: Interacciones regionales y colapso. In Huari y Tiwanaku: Modelos vs. Evidencias, segunda parte, edited by Peter Kaulicke and William H. Isbell, pp. 169–188. Boletín de Arqueología No. 5. Pontifica Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Palmer, Colin A. 2000 The African Diaspora. Black Scholar 30(3–4):56–60.Google Scholar
Pari, F., Romulo, E. 1980 Excavación arqueológica en la necropolis de Tumilaka-Moquegua. Unpublished B.A. thesis, Facultad de Ciencias Histórico-Arqueológias, Programa Academico de Arqueología, Universidad Católica “Santa María,” Arequipa.Google Scholar
Ponce Sangines, Carlos 1981 [1972] Tiwanaku: Espacio, tiempoy cultura. Reprint. Editorial Los Amigos del Libro, La Paz.Google Scholar
Ponce Sangines, Carlos 1990 Description Sumaria del Templete Semisubterraneo de Tiwanaku. Sexta edición revisada. Librería y Editorial “Juventud,” La Paz.Google Scholar
Posnansky, Arthur 1945 Tihuanacu: The Cradle of American Man. 2 vols. J. J. Augustin, New York.Google Scholar
Ramsey, Bronk 1998 Probability and Dating. Radiocarbon 40:461–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramsey, Bronk 2000 OxCal Program v3.5. University of Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Oxford.Google Scholar
Ravines, Rogger 1969 Investigaciones Arqueológicas en el Peró: 1965–1966. Revista del Museo Nacional (Lima) 34:247–254.Google Scholar
Rex, John 1995 Ethnic Identity and the Nation State: The Political Sociology of Multi-Cultural Societies. Social Identities 1:21–35.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S. 1989 Osmore Drainage, Peru: The Ecological Setting. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish, and Phillip R. Scarr, pp. 17–33. British Archaeological Reports International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S. 1993 Late Intermediate Period Domestic Architecture and Residential Organization at La Yaral. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Mark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 66–82. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivera, Mario A. 1980 Algunos fenomenos de complementariedad economica a través de los datos arqueológicos en el area centro sur Andina: La fase Alto Ramírez reformulada. Temas antropológicos del none de Chile Estudios Arqueológicos, número especial, pp. 72–100. Universidad del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile.Google Scholar
Rivera, Mario A. 1991 The Prehistory of Northern Chile: A Synthesis. Journal of World Prehistory 5:1–47.Google Scholar
Rodman, Amy O. 1992 Textiles and Ethnicity: Tiwanaku in San Pedro de Atacama, North Chile. Latin American Antiquity 3:316–340.Google Scholar
Rodman, Amy O., and Fernández, Arabel 2000 Los tejidos huari y tiwanaku: Comparaciones y contextos. In Huari y Tiwanaku: Modelos vs. Evidencias, primera parte, edited by Peter Kaulicke and William H. Isbell, pp. 119–130. Boletín de Arqueología No. 4. Pontifica Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Roosens, Eugeen 1989 Creating Ethnicity: The Process of Ethnogenesis. Sage, Newbury Park, California.Google Scholar
Rothhammer, Francisco, and Santoro, Calogero M. 2001 El desarrollo cultural en el valley de Azapa, extremo norte de Chile y su vinculación con los desplazamientos poblacionales altiplánicos. Latin American Antiquity 12:59–66.Google Scholar
Sackett, James R. 1982 Approaches to Style in Lithic Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1:59–112.Google Scholar
Safran, William 1991 Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return. Diaspora 1:83–99.Google Scholar
Santoro, Calogero M. 1980a Estratigrafía y secuencia cultural funeraria fases: Azapa, Alto Ramírez y Tiwanaku (Arica-Chile). Chungarí 6:24–45.Google Scholar
Santoro, Calogero M. 1980b Estudio de un yacimiento funerario arqueológico del extremo norte de Chile, 1.300 A.C.-1.300 D.C. Unpublished Proyecto para optar al titulo de Arqueologo, Departamento de Arqueología, Universidad del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile.Google Scholar
Santoro, Calogero M., and Ulloa, Liliana 1985 Culturas de Arica. Serie Patrimonio Cultural Chileno, Coleccion Culturas Aborigenes. Universidad de Tarapacá, Instituto de Antropología y Arqueología, Arica.Google Scholar
Rene, Santos R. 1983 Cementerio “El Algarrobal,” rescate e investigation arqueológica, Ilo-Moquegua. Praxis, Revista de la Sociedad Academica de Doctores de la Universidad Católica Santa Maria 2:8–13.Google Scholar
Seddon, Matthew T. 1998 Ritual, Power, and the Development of a Complex Society: The Island of the Sun and the Tiwanaku State. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1992 Ancient Andean Political Economy. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 2002 Tiwanaku Political Economy. In Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization, edited by William Isbell and Helaine Silverman, pp. 169–198. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 2003 Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Stein, Gil 1999 Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Beck, J. W., Burr, G. S., Hughen, K. A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., van der Plicht, J., and Spurk, M. 1998 INTCAL98 Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 24000-0 Cal BP. Radiocarbon 40:1041–1083.Google Scholar
Sutter, Richard C. 2000 Prehistoric Genetic and Culture Change: A Bioarchaeological Search for Pre-Inka Altiplano Colonies in the Coastal Valleys of Moquegua, Peru, and Azapa, Chile. Latin American Antiquity 11:43–70.Google Scholar
Thompson, Lonnie G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Bolzan, J. F., and Koci, B. R. 1985 A 1500-Year Record of Tropical Precipitation in Ice Cores from the Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru. Science 229:971–973.Google Scholar
Torres-Rouff, Christina 2002 Cranial Vault Modification and Ethnicity in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. Current Anthropology 43:163–171.Google Scholar
Trimborn, Hermann (editor) 1975 Investigaciones arqueológicos en las valles de Caplina y Sama (Departamento de Tacna, Perú). Studia Instituti Anthropos 25:87–118. Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Uhle, Freidrich Max 1922 Fundamentos étnicosy arqueología de Arica y Tacna. 2d ed. Universidad Central de Ecuador, Quito.Google Scholar
Umire, Adan, and Miranda, Ana 2001 Chiribaya de Ilo, un aporte a su difusión. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Arequipa, Peru.Google Scholar
Vargas, Bertha 1988 Informe final del proyecto: “Rescate Arqueológico del Cementerio de Chen Chen.” Report submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Moquegua. Manuscript on file, Museo Contisuyo, Moquegua, Peru.Google Scholar
Vela, Carlos 1996 Bases para el conocimiento de la presencia Tiwanaku en el valle del Caplina, Tacna. Ciencia y Desarrollo, Revista del Consejo de Investigación (COIN), Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann 4:125–137.Google Scholar
Williams, Patrick Ryan 1997 The Role of Disaster in the Development of Agriculture and the Evolution of Social Complexity in the South-Central Andes. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Williams, Patrick Ryan 2001 Cerro Baúl: A Wari Center in the Tiwanaku Frontier. Latin American Antiquity 12:67–83.Google Scholar
Williams, Patrick Ryan 2002 Rethinking Disaster-Induced Collapse in the Demise of the Andean Highland States: Wari and Tiwanaku. World Archaeology 33:361–374.Google Scholar
Wobst, Martin H. 1977 Stylistic Behavior and Information Exchange. In For the Director: Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin, edited by Charles Cleland, pp. 317–342. Anthropological Papers 61. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar