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² Duverger, M., Political Parties (New York, 1954)Google Scholar Neumann, S., Modern Political Parties (Chicago, 1956)Google Scholar Diamant, Alfred, ‘The Relevance of Comparative Politics to the Study of Comparative Administration’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 5, no. 2 (June 1960), pp. 87–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³ Martz, J., ‘Political Parties in Colombia and Venezuela: Contrasts in Substance and Style’, Western Political Quarterly, vol. 18, no. 2 (June 1965).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴ Theoretical overviews included Martz, , ‘Dilemmas in the Study of Latin American Political Parties’, Journal of Politics, vol. 26, no. 3 (Aug. 1964), pp. 509–532CrossRefGoogle Scholar McDonald, Ronald, Party Systems and Elections in Latin America (Chicago, 1971)Google Scholar Ranis, Peter, ‘A Two-Dimensional Typology of Latin American Parties’, Journal of Politics, vol. 30. no. 4 (Nov. 1968), pp. 798–832CrossRefGoogle Scholar; also Scott, R., ‘Political Parties and Policy-Making in Latin America’, in Lapalombara, J. and Weiner, M. (eds.), Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, 1966), pp. 331–368.Google Scholar Examples of specific case studies were English, B., Liberación Nacional in Costa Rica (Gainesville, 1971)Google Scholar Hilliker, G., The Politics of Reform in Peru: The Aprista and Other Mass Parties of Latin America (Baltimore, 1971)Google Scholar Kantor, H., The Ideology and Program of the Peruvian Aprista Movement (New York, 1966)Google Scholar Martz, J., Acción Democrática; Evolution of a Modern Political Party in Venezuela (Princeton, 1966)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Williams, E., Latin American Christian Democratic Parties (Knoxville, 1967).Google Scholar

⁵ Epstein, Leon outlines the conditions and circumstances in his ‘Political Parties’, in Greenstein, Fred and Polsby, Nelson (eds.), Handbook of Political Science, vol. 4, Nongovernmental Politics (Reading, 1975).Google Scholar Also see Epstein, , ‘The Scholarly Commitment to Parties’, in Finifter, Ada (ed.), Political Science; The State of the Discipline (Washington, 1983), pp. 127–155.Google Scholar

⁶ Among recent examples is Drake, Paul and Silva, Eduardo (eds.), Elections and Democratization in Latin America, 1980–1985 (San Diego, 1986)Google Scholar, a rather disparate collection of colloquium papers which includes both outstanding and undistinguished contributions.

⁷ Meyer, Lorenzo, ‘Democracy from Three Latin American Perspectives’, in Pastor, Robert (ed.), Democracy in the Americas; Stopping the Pendulum (New York, 1989), p. 34.Google Scholar

⁸ Valenzuela, Arturo, ‘Political Science and the Study of Latin America’, in Mitchell, Christopher (ed.), Changing Perspectives in Latin American Studies; Insights from Six Disciplines (Stanford, 1988), pp. 82–83.Google Scholar

⁹ McDonald, R. and Ruhl, J., Party Politics and Elections in Latin America (Boulder, 1989), p. xi.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Martz, , ‘Parties in Colombia and Venezuela’, pp. 318–333.Google Scholar

¹¹ See the concluding chapter of Neumann, Sigmund (ed.), Modern Political Parties; Approaches to Comparative Politics (Chicago, 1956).Google Scholar

¹² An excellent statement on the so-called catch-all parties is Otto Kirchheimer, ‘The Transformation of Western European Party Systems’, in LaPalombara and Weiner, pp. 177–200. For a prime example of catch-all parties in Latin America see waring, Scott Main, ‘Political Parties and Democratization in Brazil and the Southern Cone’, Comparative Politics, vol. 20, no. 3 (Oct. 1988), pp. 91–120.Google Scholar

¹³ Dix, Robert, ‘Cleavage Structures and Party Systems in Latin America’, Comparative Politics, vol. 21, no. 3 (Oct. 1989), p. 24.Google Scholar

¹⁴ In addition to Dix' work, consult the superb overviews of two other authoritative Colombianists: see Hartlyn, J., The Politics of Coalition Rule in Colombia (Cambridge, 1988)Google Scholar and Kline, H., Colombia; Portrait of Unity and Diversity (Boulder, 1983).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Dix cogently develops this perspective in his Dix, ‘Consociational Democracy: The Case of Colombia’, Comparative Politics, vol. 12, no. 5 (April 1980), pp. 303–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁶ Gil, Federico, ‘Colombia's Bipartisan Experiment’, in Wilgus, A. (ed.), The Caribbean: Contemporary Colombia (Gainesville, 1962).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Martz, J., Colombia; A Contemporary Political Study (Chapel Hill, 1962), p. 35.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Fluharty, V., Dance of the Millions: Military Rule and the Social Revolution in Colombia (Pittsburgh, 1957), p. 66.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Dix, , ‘Cleavage Structures’, p. 25.Google Scholar

²⁰ For a superb biography see Sharpless, R., Gaitán of Colombia; A Political Biography (Pittsburgh, 1978).Google Scholar

²¹ Gil, , ‘Bipartisan Experiment.’Google Scholar

²² Gibson, Edward, ‘Colombia, 1949: Elite Conflict and Societal Violence’, in Pastor, Democracy in the Americas, p. 166.Google Scholar

²³ Molina, Gerardo, ‘Notes sobre el Frente Nacional’, Estrategía económica y financiera, 12 (June 1978), p. 16.Google Scholar

²⁴ See de Sucre, M. Acedo and Mendoza, C. Nones, La generación venezplana de 1928; Estudio de una élite político (Caracas, 1967)Google Scholar; and Martz, J., ‘The Generation of '28: Genesis of Venezuelan Democracy’, Journal of Inter-American Studies, vol. 6, no. 1 (Jan. 1964).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁵ Gibson, E., ‘Venezuela (1945–1948)’, in Pastor, , Democracy in the Americas, p. 162.Google Scholar

²⁶ This was reiterated at length in Betancourt's classic Venezuela; polítical y petróleo, 2nd edn. (Caracas, 1967).Google Scholar

²⁷ Oesterling, J., Democracy in Colombia; Clientelist Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (New Brunswick, 1989), p. 162.Google Scholar

²⁸ Boeker, P., Lost Illusions; Latin America's Struggle for Democracy, as Recounted by its Leaders (New York, 1990), p. 221.Google Scholar

²⁹ Ibid., p. 233.

³⁰ For a characteristic statement see Galán, L., Nueva Colombia (Bogotá, 1982).Google Scholar Representative proposals may be found in Liberalismo, Nuevo, 1984–1986; Programa del Nuevo Liberalismo para Bogotá (Bogotá, 1986).Google Scholar Typical of broader political interpretations sympathetic to new reformist elements within the prevailing system is Ballén, R., Liberalismo boy; opción de cambio o agónica supervivencia (Bogotá, 1985).Google Scholar

³¹ Personal notes of Harvey Kline as reported in his ‘From Rural to Urban Society: The Transformation of Colombian Democracy’, in Herman, Donald (ed.), Democracy in Latin America; Colombia and Venezuela (New York, 1988), p. 38.Google Scholar

³² Ogliastri, E., ‘Liberales Conservadores versus Conservadores Liberates’, Paper presented to the Latin American Studies Association, Albuquerque, NM, October 1983, p. 16.Google Scholar

³³ Among his various publications see Hoskin, Gary, ‘Belief Systems of Colombian Political Party Activists’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 21, no. 4 (Nov. 1979), pp. 481–504CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hoskin, , ‘Dimensiones de Conflicto’, in Hoskin, et al. (ed.), Estudio del Comportamiento Legislativo (Bogotá, 1975).Google Scholar

³⁴ Payne, J., Patterns of Conflict in Colombia (New Haven, 1968).Google Scholar

³⁵ For an excellent collection of essays on the 1986 national elections, accompanied by useful data, see Colombia en las urnas; que pasó en 1986? (Bogotá, 1987).Google Scholar

³⁶ A stimulating set of essays by a leading authority on Colombian politics, published shortly before the 1986 elections, is Latorre, M., Hechos y crítica politica (Bogotá, 1986).Google Scholar

³⁷ Contrasting strands intertwined through the Liberal party over the past two decades are outlined in a series of proposals and resolutions collected as Encuentros y foros del liberalismo (Bogotá, 1988).Google Scholar

³⁸ Dix, , ‘The Varieties of Populism: The Case of Colombia’, Western Political Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 3 (Sept. 1978), pp. 334–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁹ Two Liberal foundations have been created: the Instituto de Estudios Liberates and the Fundación para la Preservación y Defense de la Democracia Colombiana (FEDEMOCRATICA). Conservative-party organisations dedicated to political research are the Fundación Simón Bolívar, identified with former president Pastrana, and the Fundación para el Desarrollo de los Recursos Humanos, affiliated with the Ospina family.

⁴⁰ The origins of the party and its evolution until the mid-1960s are analysed at length in Martz, J., Acción Democrática; Evolution of a Modern Political Party in Venezuela (Princeton, 1966).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴¹ A standard source on COPEI is Herman, D., Christian Democracy in Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1980).Google Scholar

⁴² The most detailed account is found in Martz, J. and Baloyra, E., Electoral Mobilization and Public Opinion; The Venezuelan Campaign of 1973 (Chapel Hill, 1976).Google Scholar

⁴³ For an ideological overview concerning COPEI, see Jortín, M. and Martz, J., Latin American Political Thought and Ideology (Chapel Hill, 1970). ch. 13.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Among the many writings of the founder of Venezuelan Christian democracy, see Caldera, R.'s Moldes para la fragua (Caracas, 1962)Google Scholar; and Caldera, R. Ideario: la democracia cristiana en América Latina (Barcelona, 1970).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See the discussion in Ellner, Steve, ‘Inter-Party Agreement and Rivalry’, Studies in Comparative International Development, vol. 19, no. 4 (winter 1984–1985), pp. 54–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁶ Kline, , ‘From Rural to Urban Society: The Transformation of Colombian Democracy’, in Herman, Democracy in Latin America, p. 25.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See the bibliographic reference to scholarly characterisations of the Colombian political system in Bagley, Bruce, ‘Colombia: National Front and Economic Development’, in Wesson, Robert (ed.), Politics, Policies, and Economic Development (Stanford, 1984), pp. 125–126.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ See the discussion in Martz, John, ‘Colombia's Search for Peace’, Current History, vol. 88, no. 536 (March 1989), 125–129, 145–147.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Useful sources include Castro, J., Eleccín popular de alcalde (Bogotá, 1986)Google Scholar, and the multiauthored Reformas political; apertura democrática, edición preparada por Cristina de la Torre (Bogotá, 1985).Google Scholar A relevant statement from the recent president is Barco, V., Diálogo democrático: ni begemonia, ni sectarismo (Bogotá, 1987).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ On 13 March 1988 the Liberals won 427 mayoral positions with 2,994,594 votes. The Social Conservatives captured 416 offices with 2,191,254 votes. The communists’ Unión Patriótica won only 14 seats. Although election day itself was relatively peaceful, during the six previous months 29 of the UP's mayoral candidates and over 100 aspirants to municipal councils had been killed. For a legalistic review of electoral procedures, see Becerra, A. Hemández, Las elecciones en Colombia (análisis jurídico-político) (San José, 1986).Google Scholar An informative guide for the Colombian votes is Cepeda, M., Cómo son las elecciones en Colombia (Bogotá, 1986).Google Scholar

⁵¹ Sánchez, Gonzalo, ‘La Violencia in Colombia: new research, new questions’, Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 65, no. 4 (Nov. 1985), p. 796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵² Oesterling, , Democracy in Colombia, p. 178.Google Scholar

⁵³ Ibid., p. 182.

⁵⁴ El Espectador and La República, 4.5 August 1986.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ The powerful factional leader Bertha Hernández de Ospina, widow of former president Mariano Ospina Pérez, noted publicly that the Directorate was composed of ‘the same people with the same ideas’. See La República, 4 August 1986.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Duverger, M., Political Parties (New York, 1955), especially pp. xxiii–xxxvii.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Dix, R., The Politics of Colombia (New York, 1987), p. 89.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Ibid. An excellent treatment of Colombian parties as electoral agents is Latotre, M., Elecciones y partidos políticos en Colombia (Bogotá, 1974).Google Scholar

⁵⁹ See Kline, , ‘From Rural to Urban Society’.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ An excellent treatment is Rodriguez, G. Hernández, La Alternación ante el Pueblo (Bogotá, 1962), p. 168.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Dix, , The Politics of Colombia, p. 92.Google Scholar

⁶² Buitrago, F. Leal, Estado y político en Colombia (Bogotá, 1984), p. 160.Google Scholar

⁶³ Oesterling, , Democracy, p. 159.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ For example, Martz, John, ‘The Malaise of Venezuelan Political Parties: Is Democracy Endangered?’, in Herman, , Democracy in Latin America, pp. 155–175.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ The most detailed treatment is Martz, and Baloyra, , Electoral Mobilization and Public Opinion.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ An authoritative treatment is Ellner, S., Venezuela's Movimiento al Socialismo; From Guerrilla Defeat to Innovative Politics (Durham, 1988).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ This pattern was broken by the December 1988 electoral victory of former president Carlos Andrés Pérez, who succeeded his fellow Acción Democrática member, Jaime Lusinchi.

⁶⁸ An excellent discussion and rationalisation by a leader of COPEI's rising younger generation is Briceño, G. Tarre, Carta abierta a los copeyanos (que puede ser leída por quienes no lo son), 2nd edn. (Caracas, 1990).Google Scholar For a thoughtful treatment by an informed student of COPEI, see Lares, R. Combellas, COPEI: ideología y liderazgo (Caracas, 1985).Google Scholar The official party statement is found in Partido Social-Cristiano COPEI, Bases programáticas (Caracas, 1987).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Note that in 1968 Rafael Caldera won with less than 30% of the vote. Despite occasional discussions of a second-round run-off, Venezuela has chosen not to adopt this arrangement.

⁷⁰ Beginning in 1978, local elections for district councils were held separately from the other races. Thus the first such elections in more than thirty years were held on 3 June 1979, and were held five years later on 27 May 1984. More detailed analysis is Martínez, Ildemaro, ‘Venezuelan Local Government’, in Martz, and Myers, David (eds.), Venezuela; The Democratic Experience, 2nd edn. (New York, 1986), pp. 584–602.Google Scholar

⁷¹ This was detailed at length in Martz, , Acción Democrática.Google Scholar

⁷² See Myers, David J., ‘Party Democracy and the Technological Elite: Venezuelan Professionals and Technicians’, Papers presented to the Latin American Studies Association convention in New Orleans, LA., March 1988.Google Scholar

⁷³ An illustrative party document setting forth such matters is Democrática, Acción, Estatutos (Caracas, 1986).Google Scholar Even more detailed and specialised provisions are adopted for electoral campaigns. Thus, see Democrática, Acción, Reglamento interior de los organismos de dirección de la campaña electoral correspondiente a 1988 (Caracas, 1988).Google Scholar

⁷⁴ For the classic source see Michels, R., Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (Chicago, 1962).Google Scholar For an elaboration dealing with the selection of presidential nominees, see Coppedge, Michael, ‘Presidents and Factions in Venezuela’, Paper prepared for the XV LASA meeting, September 1989.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ The texts of legislative proposals first offered and debated in 1980 and 1981 are found in Mejía, A. Tirado, Decentralización y centratismo en Colombia (Bogotá, 1983).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ In addition to the volumes of Jaime Castro already cited, see the treatment of apertura in Santamaría, R. and Silva, G., Proceso politico en Colombia; del Frente Nacional a la apertura democrática (Bogotá, 1984).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Hoskin, Gary, ‘Colombian Political Parties and Electoral Behavior During the Post-National Front Period’, in Herman, , Democracy in Latin America, p. 61.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Barco is quoted in Boeker, , Lost Illusions, p. 198.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ See the discussion of Rey, J. in his El futuro de la democracia en Venezuela (Caracas, 1989).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Comisión Presidencial para la Reforma del Estado, La reforma del estado (Caracas, 1988).Google Scholar

⁸¹ Extensive papers and presentations on the topic were held at the Latin American Program of the Woodrow Wilson Center in June 1990, which the author attended. A basic statement by the President of COPRE is Blanco, C., La reforma del estado en la perspectiva latinoamericana.Google Scholar

⁸² The literature of political clientelism in Colombia is extensive. For a thoughtful and representative work, see Losada, R., Clientelismo y elecciones (Bogotá, 1984).Google Scholar Also see two important new publications on the subject: Leal, F. and Davila, A., Clientelismo; el sistema politico y su expresión regional (Bogotá, 1991)Google Scholar; and Leal, F. and Zamosc, L. (eds.), Al filo del caos; crisis político en la Colombia de los años 80 (Bogotá, 1991).Google Scholar

⁸³ A pair of journalistic analyses which provides an informative if informal perspective was recently published in Pérez, Hesper, Proceso del bipartidismo colombiano y Frente Nacional (Bogotá, 1989).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Neumann, , Modern Political Parties, p. 396.Google Scholar